Chapter Three:

Register Transfer and Microoperations

Contents to be covered
• Register Transfer Language
• Register Transfer
• Bus and Memory Transfers
• Arithmetic Microoperations
• Logic Microoperations
• Shift Microoperations
3-1 Register Transfer Language (RTL)
• Simple digital Systems are an interconnection of
hardware modules that do a certain task on the
information.
• The modules are constructed from such digital
components as registers, decoders, arithmetic
elements and control logic
• Modules are interconnected with common data and
control paths to form a digital computer system
 3-1 Register Transfer Language cont.
• Microoperations: operations executed on data stored in one
or more registers.
• The result of the operation may be:
– replace the previous binary information of a register or
– transferred to another register
Shift Right Operation
101101110011 010110111001

– Computer system micro-operations are of four types:

– Register transfer micro-operations
– Arithmetic micro-operations
– Logic micro-operations
– Shift micro-operations
3-1 Register Transfer Language cont.
• The internal hardware organization of a digital computer is
defined by specifying:
• The set of registers it contains and their function
• The sequence of microoperations performed on the
binary information stored in the registers
• The control that initiates the sequence of
microoperations

• Register Transfer Language (RTL) : a symbolic

notation to describe the microoperation transfers
among registers
 3-2 Register Transfer (our first microoperation)
• Computer registers are designated by capital letters
(sometimes followed by numerals) to denote the
function of the register
• R1: processor register
• MAR: Memory Address Register (holds an address for
a memory unit)
• PC: Program Counter
• IR: Instruction Register
• SR: Status Register
 3-2 Register Transfer cont.
• The individual flip-flops in an n-bit register are
numbered in sequence from 0 to n-1 (from the right
position toward the left position)

R1 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

Register R1 Showing individual bits

A block diagram of a register

 3-2 Register Transfer cont.
Other ways of drawing the block diagram of a register:

15 0
PC

Numbering of bits

15 87 0
Upper byte PC(H) PC(L) Lower byte

Partitioned into two parts

 3-2 Register Transfer cont.
• Information transfer from one register to another is described by
a replacement operator: R2 ← R1
• This statement denotes a transfer of the content of register R1
into register R2
• The transfer happens in one clock cycle
• The content of the R1 (source) does not change
• The content of the R2 (destination) will be lost and replaced
by the new data transferred from R1
• We are assuming that the circuits are available from the outputs
of the source register to the inputs of the destination register, and
that the destination register has a parallel load capability
 3-2 Register Transfer cont.
• Conditional transfer occurs only under a control
condition
If(p=1) then (R2 ← R1)
• Representation of a (conditional) transfer
P: R2 ← R1
• A binary condition (P equals to 0 or 1)
determines when the transfer occurs
• The content of R1 is transferred into R2 only if P
is 1
 3-2 Register Transfer cont.
Basic Symbols for Register Transfers
Symbol Description Examples
Letters & Denotes a register MAR, R2
numerals
Parenthesis ( ) Denotes a part of a R2(0-7), R2(L)
register
Arrow ← Denotes transfer of R2 ← R1
information
Comma , Separates two R2 ← R1, R1 ← R2
microoperations
 3-3 Bus and Memory Transfers
• Paths must be provided to transfer information from
one register to another
• A Common Bus System is a scheme for transferring
information between registers in a multiple-register
configuration
• A bus: set of common lines, one for each bit of a
register, through which binary information is
transferred one at a time
• Control signals determine which register is selected by
the bus during each particular register transfer
3-3 Bus and Memory Transfers
 3-3 Bus and Memory Transfers
• The selection lines choose the four bits of one
register and transfer them in to the four line
common bus.
 3-3 Bus and Memory Transfers
• The transfer of information from a bus into one
of many destination registers is done:
– By connecting the bus lines to the inputs of all
destination registers and then:
– activating the load control of the particular destination
register selected
• We write: R2 ← C to symbolize that the content
of register C is loaded into the register R2 using
the common system bus
• It is equivalent to: BUS ←C, (select C)
R2 ←BUS (Load R2)
 3-3 Bus and Memory Transfers:
• A memory unit is a collection of storage cells together with
associated circuits needed to transfer information in and out
of storage.
• The memory stores binary information in groups of bits
called words
• Data being read or wrote is called a memory word (called
M)
• It is necessary to specify the address of M when writing
/reading memory
• This is done by enclosing the address in square brackets
following the letter M
• Example: M[0016] : the memory contents at address 0016
 3-3 Bus and Memory Transfers:
• The transfer of information from a memory word to
the outside environment is called a read operation.
• Memory read : Transfer from memory
• The transfer of new information to be stored into the
memory is called a write operation.
• Memory write : Transfer to memory
• Assume that the address of a memory unit is stored in
a register called the Address Register AR
• Lets represent a Data Register with DR, then:
• Read: DR ← M[AR]
• Write: M[AR] ← DR
3-3 Bus and Memory Transfers:

AR
x0C 19
x12 x0E 34
R1 x10 45
100 x12 66
x14 0
x16 13
R1←M[AR] x18 22

RAM

R1 R1
100 66
 3-4 Arithmetic Microoperations
• The microoperations most often encountered in digital
computers are classified into four categories:
– Register transfer microoperations
– Arithmetic microoperations (on numeric data stored in
the registers)
– Logic microoperations (bit manipulations on non-
numeric data)
– Shift microoperations
 3-4 Arithmetic Microoperations cont.
• The basic arithmetic microoperations are: addition,
subtraction, increment, decrement, and shift
• The following table shows the arithmetic microoperation
3-4 Arithmetic Microoperations Binary
Adder

B3 A3 B2 A2 B1 A1 B0 A0

C3 C2 C1
FA FA FA FA C0

C4 S3 S2 S1 S0

4-bit binary adder

(connection of FAs)
3-4 Arithmetic Microoperations Binary
Adder-Subtractor
B3 A3 B2 A2 B1 A1 B0 A0

C3 C2 C1 C0
FA FA FA FA

C4 S3 S2 S1 S0

4-bit adder-subtractor
 3-4 Arithmetic Microoperations Binary
Adder-Subtractor
• The mode input M controls the operation
• When M=0, the circuit is an adder and
B 0=B and the input carry is 0, then A+B
• When M=1, the circuit becomes subtractor
B 1=B’ and the input carry is 1, then A plus
2’complement of B
The subtraction A-B can be carried out by the following steps
• Take the 1 ’ complement of B
• Get the 2 ’ complement by adding 1
• Add the result to A
3-4 Arithmetic Microoperations Binary
Incrementer
A3 A2 A1 A0 1

x y x y x y x y

HA HA HA HA

C S C S C S C S

C4 S3 S2 S1 S0

4-bit Binary Incrementer

 3-4 Arithmetic Microoperations Binary
Incrementer
• Binary Incrementer can also be
implemented using a counter
• A binary decrementer can be implemented
by adding 1111 to the desired register
each time!
  3-5 Logic Microoperations
 Manipulating the bits stored in a register (bit by bit)
 The four basic logic microoperations
 3-5 Logic Microoperations
The four basic microoperations
OR Microoperation
• Symbol: , +

• Gate:

• Example: 1001102  10101102 = 11101102

OR OR

P+Q: R1←R2+R3, R4←R5 R6

ADD
 3-5 Logic Microoperations
The four basic microoperations cont.
AND Microoperation
• Symbol: 

• Gate:

• Example: 1001102  10101102 = 00001102

 3-5 Logic Microoperations
The four basic microoperations cont.
Complement (NOT) Microoperation
• Symbol:


• Gate:

• Example: 10101102 = 01010012

 3-5 Logic Microoperations
The four basic microoperations cont.
XOR (Exclusive-OR) Microoperation
• Symbol: 

• Gate:

• Example: 1001102  10101102 =

11100002
 3-5 Logic Microoperations
Other Logic Microoperations
Selective-set Operation
• Used to force selected bits of a register
into logic-1 by using the OR operation

• Example: 01002  10002 = 11002

Loaded into a register from
In a processor register
memory to perform the
selective-set operation
 3-5 Logic Microoperations
Other Logic Microoperations cont.
Selective-complement (toggling) Operation
• Used to force selected bits of a register to be
complemented by using the XOR operation

• Example: 00012  10002 = 10012

Loaded into a register from

In a processor register
memory to perform the
selective-complement operation
 3-5 Logic Microoperations
Hardware Implementation
• The hardware implementation of logic
microoperations requires that logic gates be inserted
for each bit or pair of bits in the registers to perform
the required logic function
• Most computers use only four (AND, OR, XOR, and
NOT) from which all others can be derived.
 3-5 Logic Microoperations
Hardware Implementation cont.
S1
4×1
S0
MUX S1 S0 Output Operation
Ai
0 0 E=AB XOR
Bi
0
0 1 E=AB OR

1 0 E=AB AND
1 Ei
1 1 E=A Complement

3 This is for one bit i

 3-5 Logic Microoperations
• List of logic microoperations
 3-6 Shift Microoperations
• Used for serial transfer of data
• Also used in conjunction with arithmetic, logic, and
other data-processing operations
• The contents of the register can be shifted to the left or
to the right
• As being shifted, the first flip-flop receives its binary
information from the serial input
• There are three types of shifts:
• Logical shift,
• Circular shift (rotate operation)
• Arithmetic shift
 3-6 Shift Microoperations
• The following table shows shift microoperations
 3-6 Shift Microoperations cont.

Serial Input r2 Serial Output

rn-1 r3 r1 r0

Determines Shift Right

the “shift”
type

Serial Output Serial Input

rn-1 r3 r2 r1 r0

Shift Left

**Note that the bit ri is the bit at position (i) of the register
 3-6 Shift Microoperations:
Logical Shifts
• A logical Shift transfers 0 through the serial
input (Zero inserted)
• Logical Shift Right: R1←shr R1
The same
• Logical Shift Left: R2←shl R2
The same

? rn-1 r3 r2 r1 r0 0
Logical Shift Left
• Example: use a logical shift left on the bit pattern 10011000.
• Solution: The leftmost bit is lost and a 0 is inserted as the rightmost bit.
 3-6 Shift Microoperations:
Circular Shifts (Rotate Operation)
• Circulates the bits of the register around the
two ends without loss of information
• Circular Shift Right: R1←cir R1
The same
• Circular Shift Left: R2←cil R2 The same
rn-1 r3 r2 r1 r0
Circular Shift Left
• Use a Circular Left Shift Operation on the bit pattern 10011000.
• Solution: The leftmost bit is circulated and becomes the rightmost bit.
 3-6 Shift Microoperations
Arithmetic Shifts
• Shifts a signed binary number to the left or right
• An arithmetic shift-left multiplies a signed binary
number by 2: ashl (00100): 01000
• An arithmetic shift-right divides the number by 2
ashr (00100) : 00010
• The sign bit is 0 for positive and 1 for negative.

Sign
Bit
 3-6 Shift Microoperations
Arithmetic Shifts cont.
• An overflow may occur in arithmetic shift-left, and
occurs when the sign bit is changed (sign reversal)
• An overflow flip-flop Vs can be used to detect an
arithmetic shift-left overflow

Vs = Rn-1  Rn-2

Rn-1 1  overflow
Vs=
Rn-2 0  no overflow
 3-6 Shift Microoperations
Arithmetic Shifts
 Arithmetic shift right:
 Rn-1 remains unchanged;
 Rn-2 receives Rn-1, Rn-3 receives Rn-2, so on.
 For a negative number, 1 is shifted from the sign bit to
the right.
 A negative number is represented by the 2’s
complement form. The sign bit remained unchanged.
 3-6 Shift Microoperations
Arithmetic Shifts
 Arithmetic Shift Right :
 Example 1
0100 (4)  0010 (2)
 Example 2
1010 (-6)  1101 (-3)
 3-6 Shift Microoperations
Arithmetic Shifts
Arithmetic Shift Left :
• The operation is same with Logic shift-left
• transfers 0 through the serial input (Zero inserted)
• The only difference is you need to check overflow
problem
Carry out
Sign bit
R2←ashl R2

LSB

Rn-1 Rn-2 0 insert

Vs=1 : There is an overflow and sign reversal

Vs=0 : There is no overflow
 3-6 Shift Microoperations
Arithmetic Shifts
 Arithmetic Shift Left :
 Example 1
0010 (2)  0100 (4)
 Example 2
1110 (-2)  1100 (-4)
 Arithmetic Shift Left :
 Example 3
0100 (4)  1000 (overflow)
 Example 4
1010 (-6)  0100 (overflow)
 3-6 Shift Microoperations cont.

• Example: Assume R1=11001110, then:

– Arithmetic shift right once : R1 = 11100111
– Arithmetic shift right twice : R1 = 11110011
– Arithmetic shift left once : R1 = 10011100
– Arithmetic shift left twice : R1 = 00111000
– Logical shift right once : R1 = 01100111
– Logical shift left once : R1 = 10011100
– Circular shift right once : R1 = 01100111
– Circular shift left once : R1 = 10011101