Semester& Year: 5th Sem & 2024

Faculty Name: Dr. Arpitha Shankar S

Subject with Code: ICOMPUTER NETWORKS (BCS502)
Course Outcomes: At the end of the course, the students will be able to:
•CO1: Explain the fundamentals of computer networks.
•CO2: Apply the concepts of computer networks to demonstrate the working of various layers and protocols in
communication network.
•CO3: Analyze the principles of protocol layering in modern communication systems.
•CO4: Demonstrate various Routing protocols and their services using tools such as Cisco packet tracer.

1
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• Module I:
• Introduction: Data Communications, Networks, Network Types, Networks Models: Protocol Layering, TCP/IP Protocol suite, The OSI model,
Introduction to Physical Layer: Transmission media, Guided Media, Unguided Media: Wireless. Switching: Packet Switching and its types.
• [Textbook: Ch. 1.1 - 1.3, 2.1 - 2.3, 7.1 – 7.3, 8.3.]

• Module II:
• Data Link Layer: Error Detection and Correction: Introduction, Block Coding, Cyclic Codes. Data link control: DLC Services: Framing, Flow Control,
Error Control, Connectionless and Connection Oriented, Data link layer protocols, High Level Data Link Control. Media Access Control: Random
Access, Controlled Access. Check Sum and Point to Point Protocol
• [Textbook: Ch. 10.1-10.4, 11.1 -11.4, 12.1 - 12.2]

• Module III:
• Network Layer: Network layer Services, Packet Switching, IPv4 Address, IPv4 Datagram, IPv6 Datagram, Introduction to Routing Algorithms,
Unicast Routing Protocols: DVR, LSR, PVR, Unicast Routing protocols: RIP, OSPF, BGP, Multicasting Routing-MOSPF
• [Textbook: Ch. 18.1, 18.2, 18.4, 22.2,20.1-20.3, 21.3.2]

• Module IV:
• Introduction to Transport Layer: Introduction, Transport-Layer Protocols: Introduction, User Datagram Protocol, Transmission Control Protocol:
services, features, segments, TCP connections, flow control, Error control, Congestion control.
• Textbook: Ch. 23.1- 23.2, 24.1-24.3.4, 24.3.6-24.3.9

• Module V:
• Introduction to Application Layer: Introduction, Client-Server Programming, Standard ClientServer Protocols: World Wide Web and HTTP, FTP,
Electronic Mail, Domain Name System (DNS), TELNET, Secure Shell (SSH)
• Textbook: Ch. 25.1-25.2, 26.1-26.6

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 Text
1. Books:
Behrouz A. Forouzan, Data Communications and Networking, 5th Edition, Tata McGraw Hill,2013.

Reference Books :
1. Larry L. Peterson and Bruce S. Davie: Computer Networks – A Systems Approach, 4th Edition, Elsevier,
2019.
2. Nader F. Mir: Computer and Communication Networks, 2nd Edition, Pearson Education, 2015.
3. William Stallings, Data and Computer Communication 10th Edition, Pearson Education, Inc., 2014.

Web links and Video Lectures (e-Resources):

1. [Link]
2. [Link]
3. [Link]

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Module I:
[Link]: Data Communications
[Link]
[Link] Types
[Link] Models: Protocol Layering
[Link]/IP Protocol suite
[Link] OSI model
[Link] to Physical Layer: Transmission media
[Link] Media
[Link] Media
[Link]. Switching
11. Packet Switching and its types. [Textbook: Ch. 1.1 -
1.3, 2.1 - 2.3, 7.1 – 7.3, 8.3.]
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 1. Introduction: Data Communications

Data communications are the exchange of data between two devices via some form of
transmission medium such as a wire cable.

The effectiveness of a data communications system depends

on four
fundamental characteristics: delivery, accuracy, timeliness, and jitter.

[Link]:

[Link]:

[Link]:

[Link]:

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14-08- Module I: Computer 6
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1.1.2 Data Representation
Information today comes in different forms such
has :
1)Text
2)Numbers
3)Images
4)Audio
5)Video

1.1.3 Data Flow

Communication between two devices can be:
1)Simplex
2)Half-Duplex
3)Full-Duplex
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1.1.3 Data Flow
Communication between two devices can be simplex, half-duplex, or full-
duplex as shown in Figure 1.2.

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1.2 NETWORKS

A network is the interconnection of a set of devices capable of

communication. In this definition, a device can be a host (or an end system as it is
sometimes called) such as a large computer, desktop, laptop, workstation,
cellular phone, or security system.

1.2.1 Network Criteria

A network must be able to meet a certain number of criteria. The most important of
these are performance, reliability, and security.

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1
0
 1.2.2 Physical Structures

Type of Connection:

A network is two or more devices connected through

links. A link is a
communications pathway that transfers data from one device to another.

There are two possible types of connections: point-to-point and multipoint.

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 Physical
Topology:
 The term physical topology refers to the way in which a network is laid out
physically.
 Two or more devices connect to a link; two or more links form a topology.
 The topology of a network is the geometric representation of the relationship of all
the links and linking devices (nodes) to one another.

Four basic topologies:

1
2
 Physical Topology:

•Pros: Easy to install, easy to

troubleshoot
•Cons: If the hub fails, the whole
•Pros: Very reliable, no single point of network fails
failure
•Cons: Expensive and complex to
install

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 •Pros: Simple, cheap
•Cons: If backbone fails, the whole network
stops

•Pros: Predictable
performance
• Cons: If one device fails,
the loop breaks (unless
dual ring is used)

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3. NETWORK TYPES

Based on the size, geographical coverage, and ownership , two types of networks, LANs
and WANs, we define switching, which is used to connect networks to form an
internetwork (a network of networks)

1. Local Area Network

A local area network (LAN) is usually privately owned and connects some hosts
in a single office, building, or campus

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 1.3.2 Wide Area Network
A wide area network (WAN) is also an interconnection
of devices capable of communication.

However, there are some differences between a LAN and a WAN.

A LAN is normally limited in size, spanning an office, a building, or a campus; a WAN has
a wider geographical span, spanning a town, a state, a country, or even the world.

A LAN interconnects hosts; A WAN interconnects connecting devices such as switches,

routers, or modems.

A LAN is normally privately owned by the organization that uses it. A WAN is normally
created and run by communication companies and leased by an organization that uses
it.

Examples
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 Point-to-Point WAN
A point-to-point WAN is a network that connectstwo
communicating devices through a transmission media (cable or air).

1
7
 Switched
WAN
A switched WAN is a network with more than two ends.
A switched WAN, is used in the backbone of global communication.
Switched WAN is a combination of several point-to-point WANs that are connected
by switches.

18
 LAN WAN
LAN stands for Local Area Network. Whereas WAN stands for Wide Area
Network.

LAN’s ownership is private. But WAN’s ownership can be private or

public.

The speed of LAN is high(more than While the speed of WAN is slower than
WAN). LAN.
Whereas the propagation delay in
The propagation delay is short in LAN.
WAN is long(longer than
LAN).
There is less congestion in LAN(local While there is more congestion in
area network). WAN(Wide Area Network).

There is more fault tolerance in LAN. While there is less fault tolerance in
WAN.
While it’s design and maintenance is
LAN’s design and maintenance is easy.
difficult than 1
WAN.
9
LAN covers small area i.e. within the building. While WAN covers large geographical area.
LAN operates on the principle of While WAN works on the principle of point to
broadcasting. point.
Transmission medium used in LAN is co- Whereas WAN uses PSTN or satellite link
axial or UTP cable. as a transmission or communication
medium.
WAN has a lower data transfer rate as
LAN has a higher data transfer rate.
compared to
LAN.
WANs technologies used like Frame Relay
LANs technologies used like ethernet and
and X.25 for connectivity for longer
token.
distances.
LANs technologies is data transfer rate is WANs technologies data transfer rate
10mbps. 150mbps
LANs is cheaply compared to WAN WAN is costly compared to LAN.
In LAN Co-axial cables are generally used to
In WAN links are established using microwave
connect the
or satellite. 20
computer and other devices.
Internetwork

When two or more networks are connected, they make an internetwork, or

internet.

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1.3.3 Switching
An internet is a switched network in which a switch connects at least two links
together. A switch needs to forward data from a network to another network when
required.
The two most common types of switched networks are circuit-switched and packet-
switched networks.

Circuit-Switched Network
In a circuit-switched network, a dedicated connection, called a circuit, is always
available between the two end systems; the switch can only make it active or inactive

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 1.3.3 Switching

The thick line connecting two switches is a high-capacity communication line that
can handle four voice communications at the same time;
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 Packet-Switched Network
In a computer network, the communication between the two ends is done
in blocks of data called packets.

25
Serial Number Circuit – Switching Packet – Switching
It is a connection oriented network It is a connectionless network
1
switching technique. switching technique.

A dedicated path has to be

established between the source and
There is no need to establish a
2 the destination before transfer of
dedicated path from the source to
data commences.
the destination.
Once, the data is transmitted, the
path is
relinquished.

Each packet is routed separately.

It is inflexible in nature since data
Consequently, it is flexible in nature
3 packets are routed along the same
where the different data packets
dedicated path.
follow different paths.

4 It was initially designed for voice It was initially designed for data
transfer. transfer.

26
 The individual packets of the message are
5 The entire message is received in the received out of order and so need to be
order sent by the source. reassembled at the destination.

6 It is implemented at Physical Layer. It is implemented at Network Layer.

8 It is not a store and forward transmission. It is store and forward transmission.

Data is processed and transmitted at the Data is processed and transmitted, not only
9
source only. at the source but at each switching station.

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 1.3.4 The Internet
An internet (note the lowercase i) is two or more networks that can communicate with
each other. Internet composed of thousands of interconnected networks.

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 1.3.4 The Internet
Figure 1.15 shows a conceptual (not geographical) view of the Internet.

The figure shows the Internet as several backbones, provider networks, and customer networks. At the top
level, the backbones are large networks owned by some communication companies such as Sprint, Verizon
(MCI), AT&T, and NTT.

The backbone networks are connected through some complex switching systems, called peering points. At
the second level, there are smaller networks, called provider networks, that use the services of the backbones
for a fee.

The provider networks are connected to backbones and sometimes to other provider networks. The
customer networks are networks at the edge of the Internet that actually use the services provided by
the Internet. They pay fees to provider networks for receiving services.

Backbones and provider networks are also called Internet Service Providers (ISPs). The backbones are
often referred to as international ISPs; the provider networks are often referred to as national or
regional ISPs.

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1. PROTOCOL LAYERING
• Protocol defines the rules that both the sender and receiver
and all intermediate devices need to follow to be
able to communicate effectively.
• When communication is simple, we may need only one
simple protocol;
• when the communication is complex, we may need to divide
the task
between different layers, in which case we need a protocol
at each layer, or protocol
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 2.1.1 Scenarios
First scenario, communication is so simple that it can occur in
only one layer.

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 Second Scenario

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2.1.2 Principles of Protocol Layering

Two principles of protocol layering.

First Principle : Both layers need to perform two opposite tasks.

For example, the third layer task is to listen (in one direction) and talk (in the other
direction). The second layer needs to be able to encrypt and decrypt. The first layer
needs to send and receive mail.

Second Principle : Two objects under each layer at both sides should be identical.

For example, the object under layer 3 at both sites should be a plaintext letter. The
object under layer 2 at both sites should be a ciphertext letter. The object under layer
1 at both sites should be a piece of mail.

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 2.1.3 Logical Connections
Imaginary connection is established between each layer. This means
that we have layer-to-layer communication.
through which they can send the object created from that layer.

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 2.3 THE ISO/OSI MODEL
ISO is an organization, OSI is a model, which covers all the aspects of network communication. It
consists of 7 layers

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Data flows through the OSI model in a step-by-step process:
•Application Layer: Applications create the data.
•Presentation Layer: Data is formatted and encrypted.
•Session Layer: Connections are established and managed.
•Transport Layer: Data is broken into segments for reliable delivery.
•Network Layer : Segments are packaged into packets and routed.
•Data Link Layer: Packets are framed and sent to the next device.
•Physical Layer: Frames are converted into bits and transmitted
physically 36
37
Let’s look at it with an Example:

Ashu sends an e-mail to her friend Sitha.

Step 1: Ashu interacts with e-mail application like Gmail , outlook , etc. Writes her email
to send. (This happens in Layer 7: Application layer )

Step 2: Mail application prepares for data transmission like

encrypting data and formatting it for transmission. (This happens in Layer 6:
Presentation Layer )

Step 3: There is a connection established between the sender

and receiver on the internet. (This happens in Layer 5: Session Layer )

Step 4: Email data is broken into smaller segments. It adds sequence number and error-
checking information to maintain the reliability of the information. (This happens in
Layer 4: Transport Layer )
38
Step 5: Addressing of packets is done in order to find the best route for transfer. (This
happens in Layer 3: Network Layer )

Step 6: Data packets are encapsulated into frames, then MAC address is added for
local devices and then it checks for error using error detection. (This happens in Layer
2: Data Link Layer )

Step 7: Lastly Frames are transmitted in the form of electrical/ optical signals over a
physical network medium like ethernet cable or WiFi.

After the email reaches the receiver i.e. Sitha, the process will reverse and decrypt the
e-mail content. At last, the email will be shown on Sitha’s email client.

39
2.2 TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE

TCP/IP is a protocol suite (a set of protocols organized in different layers) used in

the Internet today.

It is a hierarchical protocol made up of interactive modules, each of which provides a

specific functionality.

The term hierarchical means that each upper level protocol is supported by the
services provided by one or more lower level protocols.

The original TCP/IP protocol suite was defined as four software layers built
upon the hardware.

Today, however, TCP/IP is thought of as a five-layer model. Figure 2.4 shows both
configurations
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2.2.1 Layered Architecture
To show how the layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite are involved in communication between two
hosts, we assume that we want to use the suite in a small internet made up of three LANs (links), each
with a link-layer switch.

We also assume that the links are connected by one router, as shown in Figure 2.5.

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 2.2.2 Layers in the TCP/IP Protocol Suite
To better understand the duties of each layer, we need to think about the logical connections between layers.
Figure 2.6 shows logical connections in our simple internet.

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 2.2.3 Description of Each Layer
Physical Layer

• Physical layer is responsible for carrying individual bits in a frame across the link.

• Two devices are connected by a transmission medium (cable or air).

• We need to know that the transmission medium does not carry bits; it carries
electrical or optical signals.

• So the bits received in a frame from the data-link layer are transformed and sent
through the transmission media, but we can think that the logical unit between two
physical layers in two devices is a bit.
•
• There are several protocols that transform a bit to a signal. We discuss them in
Part II when we discuss the physical layer and the transmission media.

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Data-link Layer
•An internet is made up of several links (LANs and WANs) connected by routers.
•There may be several overlapping sets of links that a datagram can travel from the host
to the destination.
•The routers are responsible for choosing the best links. However, when the next link
to travel is determined by the router, the data-link layer is responsible for
taking the datagram and moving it across the link.
•The link can be a wired LAN with a link-layer switch, a wireless LAN, a wired
WAN, or a wireless WAN.
•TCP/IP does not define any specific protocol for the data-link layer. It supports
all the standard and proprietary protocols.
•Any protocol that can take the datagram and carry it through the link suffices for the
network layer.

•The data-link layer takes a datagram and encapsulates it in a packet called

a frame.
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Network Layer
• The network layer is responsible for creating a connection between the source
computer and the destination computer. The communication at the network layer is
host-to-host.
•
• Network layer is responsible for host-to-host communication and routing the
packet through possible [Link] could have added the routing duty to the transport
layer and dropped this layer.

• The network layer in the Internet includes the main protocol, Internet Protocol
(IP), that defines the format of the packet, called a datagram at the network layer. IP
also defines the format and the structure of addresses used in this layer.

• IP is also responsible for routing a packet from its source to its destination, which is
achieved by each router forwarding the datagram to the next router in its path. IP is
a connectionless protocol that provides no flow control, no

err14o-08r-20c25ontrol, and no congestiMoodnule cI: Coomnputterr 4

7
Transport Layer
The logical connection at the transport layer is also end-to-end.
The transport layer at the source host gets the message from the application layer, encapsulates it in a
transport layer packet (called a segment or a user datagram in different protocols) and sends it, through
the logical (imaginary) connection, to the transport layer at the destination host.

It is responsible for giving services to the application layer: to get a message from an application
program running on the source host and deliver it to the corresponding application program on the
destination host.

The transport layer should be independent of the application layer. In addition, we will see that we have
more than one protocol in the transport layer, which means that each application program can use the
protocol that best matches its requirement.

The main protocol, Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), is a connection-oriented protocol that first
establishes a logical connection between transport layers at two hosts before transferring data.

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 Application Layer
As Figure 2.6 shows, the logical connection between the two application layers is end-to-end.

The two application layers exchange messages between each other as though there were a bridge between the two
layers. However, we should know that the communication is done through all the layers. Communication at the
application layer is between two processes (two programs running at this layer).

To communicate, a process sends a request to the other process and receives a response. Process-to- process
communication is the duty of the application layer. The application layer in the Internet includes many predefined
protocol a user can also create a pair of processes to be run at the two hosts.

The Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is a vehicle for accessing the World Wide Web (WWW).
The Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) is the main protocol used in electronic mail (e-mail) service. The File
Transfer Protocol (FTP) is used for transferring files from one host to another.
The Terminal Network (TELNET) and Secure Shell (SSH) are used for accessing a site remotely.
The Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) is used by an administrator to manage the Internet at
global and local levels.
The Domain Name System (DNS) is used by other protocols to find the network-layer address of a computer.
The Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP) is used to collect membership in a group.

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Layering Step Real Life (Post) Computer Network
Application layer:
A Writing the letter You write your message
Creates
data (e.g., email, chat)
You put the letter in an
Transport layer: Adds
📄 Putting it in an envelope envelope and write the
sender & receiver info
address
The post office decides Network layer: Finds
🚚 Postal service handling
the best route to send it best route (IP address)
Mail gets sorted and Data Link layer:
📦 Sorting at delivery
sent to the correct Prepares it for local
center
postman delivery
Physical layer: Delivers
Postman takes it to your
🛵 Postman delivers message through
friend's house
wires/signals 50
 Encapsulation and Decapsulation
One of the important concepts in protocol layering in the Internet is
encapsulation/ decapsulation.
Figure 2.8 shows this concept for the small internet in Figure 2.5.

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52
53
2.2.5 Addressing
Any communication that involves two parties needs two addresses: source address and destination address.
We need five pairs of addresses, one pair per layer, we normally have only four because the physical layer does not need
addresses; the unit of data exchange at the physical layer is a bit, which definitely cannot have an address.

Figure 2.9 shows the addressing at each layer. There is a relationship between the layer, the address used in that layer, and the
packet name at that layer.

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 2.2.6 Multiplexing and Demultiplexing
Multiplexing in this case means that a protocol at a layer can encapsulate a packet from several next-higher layer protocols (one
at a time); demultiplexing means that a protocol can decapsulate and deliver a packet to several next- higher layer protocols (one
at a time).
Figure 2.10 shows the concept of multiplexing and demultiplexing at the three upper layers.

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 2.3.1 OSI versus TCP/IP
When we compare the two models, we find that two layers, session and presentation, are missing from
the TCP/IP protocol suite.
These two layers were not added to the TCP/IP protocol suite after the publication of the OSI model. The
application layer in the suite is usually considered to be the combination of three layers in the OSI model,
as shown in Figure 2.12.

Two reasons were mentioned for this decision. First, TCP/IP has more than one transport-layer
protocol.

Some of the functionalities of the session layer are available in some of the transport-layer
protocols.

Second, the application layer is not only one piece of software. Many applications can be developed at
this layer.

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 7.1 INTRODUCTION
Transmission media are actually located below the physical layer and are directly controlled by the
physical layer. We could say that transmission media belong to layer zero.
Figure 7.1 shows the position of transmission media in relation to the physical layer.

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 7.2 GUIDED MEDIA

Guided media, which are those that provide a conduit from one device to another,
include twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable, and fiber-optic cable.

A signal traveling along any of these media is directed and contained by the
physical limits of the medium.

Twisted-pair and coaxial cable use metallic (copper) conductors that accept and
transport signals in the form of electric current. Optical fiber is a cable that accepts
and transports signals in the form of light.

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 7.2.1 Twisted-Pair Cable

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 Unshielded Versus Shielded Twisted-Pair Cable

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Categories
The Electronic Industries Association (EIA) has developed standards to classify unshielded twisted-pair cable into
seven categories. Categories are determined by cable quality, with 1 as the lowest and 7 as the highest. Each EIA
category is suitable for specific uses. Table 7.1 shows these categories.

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Connectors
The most common UTP connector
is RJ45 (RJ
stands for registered jack), as shown in Figure 7.5. The
RJ45 is a keyed connector,
meaning the connector can be inserted in
only one way.

Performance
One way to measure the performance of twisted- pair
cable is to compare attenuation versus frequency and
distance.
A twisted-pair cable can pass a wide range of
frequencies. However,
Figure 7.6 shows that with increasing frequency, the
attenuation, measured in decibels per kilometer
(dB/km), sharply increases with frequencies above
100 kHz.
Note that gauge is a measure of the thickness of the wire.
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Applications
Twisted-pair cables are used in telephone lines to provide voice and data channels.

The local loop—the line that connects subscribers to the central telephone office—
commonly consists of unshielded twisted-pair cables.

The DSL lines that are used by the telephone companies to provide high-data- rate
connections also use the high-bandwidth capability of unshielded twisted-pair cables.

Local-area networks, such as 10Base-T and 100Base-T, also use twisted-pair cables.

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7.2.2 Coaxial Cable

Travel longer distance at a higher

data rate Usefull for both analog
and digital transmission High
bandwidth and noise immunity 6
5
Coaxial Cable Standards
Coaxial cables are categorized by their Radio Government (RG) ratings.
Each cable defined by an RG rating is adapted for a specialized function,
as shown in Table 7.2.

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 Bayonet Neill–Concelman

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Fiber-Optic Cable

Center is glass core through which the light propogates.

Core surrounded by glass cladding with refractive index
lower than the core A thin placstic jacket to protect the
cladding.
It has higher bandwidth than copper( carries more data)
Low Attenuation(less affected by noise)
Not affected by corrosive chemicals, power surges, etc
Gets damaged easily if bent too much,
Requires trained engineers
Optical transmission
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is unidirectional
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•Light bends in an optical fiber due to refraction and total
internal reflection

• Critical angle :The critical angle is the angle at which light bends so much that
it's directed along the surface of a material.

• Reflection: When light hits a surface at an angle greater than the critical
angle, it reflects back into the material instead of passing through. This is
called total internal reflection.

• Refraction: Light bends, or refracts, when it passes from one material to

another. Light bends toward the normal when it crosses an interface into a
medium with a higher refractive index.
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Fiber-Optic Cable
Figure 7.10 shows how a ray of light changes direction when going from a more dense to
a less dense substance. As the figure shows, if the angle of incidence I is less than the
critical angle, the ray refracts and moves closer to the surface.

If the angle of incidence is equal to the critical angle, the light bends along the interface.

If the angle is greater than the critical angle, the ray reflects (makes a turn) and travels
again in the denser substance.

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Propagation Modes
Current technology supports two modes (multimode and single mode) for propagating light along
optical channels, each requiring fiber with different physical characteristics. Multimode can be
implemented in two forms: step-index or graded-index (see Figure 7.12)

71
Step-index
• A step-index fiber has a constant refractive index in the core
and a lower refractive index in the cladding. Light rays travel in
straight lines inside the core and are reflected at the core-
cladding boundary.

Graded-index
• A graded-index fiber has a varying density, with the density
highest at the center of the core and decreasing gradually to its
lowest at the edge. This type of fiber decreases distortion through
the cable.
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Multimode
Multimode is so named because multiple beams from a light source move through the core in different
paths. How these beams move within the cable depends on the structure of the core, as shown in
Figure 7.13.

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Advantages and Disadvantages of Optical Fiber
Advantages Fiber-optic cable has several advantages over metallic cable (twisted-pair or coaxial).
❑Higher bandwidth. Fiber-optic cable can support dramatically higher bandwidths (and hence data
rates) than either twisted-pair or coaxial cable.

❑Less signal attenuation. Fiber-optic transmission distance is significantly greater than that of
other guided media. A signal can run for 50 km without requiring regeneration. We need repeaters
every 5 km for coaxial or twisted-pair cable.

❑Immunity to electromagnetic interference: Electromagnetic noise cannot affect fiber- optic

cables.

❑Resistance to corrosive materials: Glass is more resistant to corrosive materials than copper.

❑Light weight: Fiber-optic cables are much lighter than copper cables.

❑Greater immunity to tapping: Fiber-optic cables are more immune to tapping than
copper cables. Copper cables create antenna effects that can easily be tapped.

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Disadvantages

There are some disadvantages in the use of optical fiber.

❑Installation and maintenance. Fiber-optic cable is a relatively new technology.
Its installation and maintenance require expertise that is not yet available
everywhere.

❑Unidirectional light propagation: Propagation of light is unidirectional.

If we need bidirectional communication, two fibers are needed.

❑Cost: The cable and the interfaces are relatively more expensive than those of
other guided media. If the demand for bandwidth is not high, often the use of
optical fiber cannot be justified.

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UNGUIDED MEDIA:
WIRELESS Unguided medium transport electromagnetic waves without using a physical conductor. This type of
communication is often referred to as wireless communication. Signals are normally broadcast through free space
and thus are available to anyone who has a device capable of receiving them.
Figure 7.17 shows the part of the electromagnetic spectrum, ranging from 3 kHz to 900 THz, used for wireless
communication.
Unguided signals can travel from the source to the destination in several ways: ground propagation, sky
propagation, and line-of-sight propagation, as shown in Figure 7.18.

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Wireless transmission is divided into three broad groups: radio waves,
microwaves, and infrared waves.
7.3.1 Radio Waves
Electromagnetic waves ranging in frequencies between 3 kHz and 1 GHz are
normally called radio waves;

waves ranging in frequencies between 1 and 300 GHz are called microwaves.

Radio waves are omnidirectional.

When an antenna transmits radio waves, they are propagated in all directions. This
means that the sending and receiving antennas do not have to be aligned. A sending
antenna sends waves that can be received by any receiving antenna.

The omnidirectional property has a disadvantage, too. The radio waves transmitted
by one antenna are susceptible to interference by another antenna that may send signals
using the same frequency or band.
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Radio waves, particularly those waves that propagate in the sky mode, can
travel long distances. This makes radio waves a good candidate for long-
distance broadcasting such as AM radio.

Radio waves, particularly those of low and medium frequencies, can

penetrate walls. This characteristic can be both an advantage and a
disadvantage.

The radio wave band is relatively narrow, just under 1 GHz, compared
to the microwave band. When this band is divided into subbands, the
subbands are also narrow, leading to a low data rate for digital
communications.
Almost the entire band is regulated by authorities (e.g., the FCC in the
United States). Using any part of the band requires permissio7n9 from the
Omnidirectional Antenna
Radio waves use omnidirectional antennas that send out signals in all directions.
Based on the wavelength, strength, and the purpose of transmission, we can have
several types of antennas. Figure 7.19 shows an omnidirectional antenna.
Applications
The omnidirectional characteristics of radio waves make them useful for
multicasting, in which there is one sender but many receivers. AM and FM

radio, television, maritime

cordless radio, phones, andpaging are
examples of multicasting.

Radio waves are used for multicast

communications, such as radio and
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television, and paging systems.
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80
7.3.2 Microwaves Electromagnetic waves having frequencies between 1 and 300 GHz are
called microwaves.

Microwaves are unidirectional.

When an antenna transmits microwaves, they can be narrowly focused.

This means that the sending and receiving antennas need to be aligned.

The unidirectional property has an obvious advantage. A pair of antennas

can be aligned without interfering with another pair of aligned antennas.

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 The following describes some characteristics of microwave
propagation:
❑Microwave propagation is line-of-sight.
Repeaters are often needed for longdistance
communication.

❑Very high-frequency microwaves cannot

penetrate walls. This characteristic can be a
disadvantage if receivers are inside buildings.

❑The microwave band is relatively wide,

almost 299 GHz. Therefore wider
subbands can be assigned, and a high data rate is possible.

❑Use of certain portions of the band

requires permission from authorities.
 7.3.3 Infrared

• Infrared waves, with frequencies from 300 GHz to 400 THz (wavelengths from 1 mm
to 770 nm), can be used for short-range communication. Infrared waves, having
high frequencies, cannot penetrate walls.

• This advantageous characteristic prevents interference between one system and

another; a short-range communication system in one room cannot be affected by
another system in the next room.

• When we use our infrared remote control, we do not interfere with the use of the
remote by our neighbors. However, this same characteristic makes infrared
signals useless for long-range communication.

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• In addition, we cannot use infrared waves outside a
building because the sun’s rays contain infrared waves that
can interfere with the communication.

• Applications The infrared band, almost 400 THz, has an

excellent potential for data transmission. Such a wide
bandwidth can be used to transmit digital data with a very
high data rate.

• The Infrared Data Association (IrDA), an association for

sponsoring the use of infrared waves, has established
standards for using these signals for communication
between devices such as keyboards, mice, PCs, and
printers.
• For example, some manufacturers provide a special port called the IrDA
port that allows a wireless keyboard to commnicate with a PC.

• The standard originally defined a data rate of 75 kbps for a distance up to

8 m. The recent standard defines a data rate of 4 Mbps.

• Infrared signals defined by IrDA transmit through line of sight; the IrDA
port on the keyboard needs to point to the PC for transmission to occur.

• Infrared signals can be used for short-range communication in a

closed area using line-of-sight propagation

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 Packet Switching

• Packet switching is a method for sending

messages fromone end system to another in data
communications.
•Messages are transmitted over a network by dividing them into smaller
units called
packets.
• Packets can be of fixed or variable size,
allowing efficient transmission through shared
networks.
•No Resource Reservation in Packet-Switched Networks
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•Lack of Resource Reservation Can Cause Delays
Datagram Network

87
Routing
Table

88
Delay

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Thank you