Module-IV

Prof. S. S. Das, Department of Civil Engineering, VSSUT, Burla 1

Aggregates used in pavement
construction can be crushed
aggregates, natural aggregates,
slags, mine waste, demolition
materials, artificial aggregates,
recycled materials or any other
material, which meets the
required mechanical, natural and
chemical properties for the layer
to be used. The first two
aggregates are defined as
conventional or ‘primary
aggregates’, whereas the others
can be defined as ‘secondary
aggregates’. Prof. S. S. Das, Department of Civil Engineering, VSSUT, Burla 2
AGGREGATE SIZES
Aggregates are divided into
• coarse aggregates,
• fine aggregates,
• filler aggregates.
According to European standards, coarse aggregates are aggregates whose particles
are retained on a 2 mm sieve and pass through a 45 mm sieve. In the case of
aggregates for unbound and hydraulically bound layers, the aggregate particles
retained on a 2 mm sieve are defined as coarse aggregate without specifying an
upper size sieve.
Fine aggregate whose particles pass through a 2 mm sieve and retained on a 0.063
mm sieve. In the case of aggregates for unbound and hydraulically bound layers,
aggregates whose particles pass through the 6.3 mm sieve are defined as fine.
Filler aggregates or fillers are aggregates most of which pass through a 0.063 mm
sieve.
They are added to construction materials to provide certain properties.
Prof. S. S. Das, Department of Civil Engineering, VSSUT, Burla 3
According to American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials
(AASHTO) and American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) standards,

Coarse aggregate is retained on the 4.75 mm sieve (also known as the No. 4 sieve);

Fine aggregate passes through the 4.75 mm sieve and is retained on the 0.075 mm
sieve (or No. 200 sieve);

Fines, all particles pass through the 0.075 mm sieve (or No. 200 sieve).

Aggregate contained on 2.36 mm IS sieve called as coarse aggregates and passing

through 2.36 mm IS sieve and contained on IS sieve of 0.075 mm called as fine
aggregates, material passed through 0.075 mm IS sieve helps in the filling of voids
known as filler.

Prof. S. S. Das, Department of Civil Engineering, VSSUT, Burla 4

AGGREGATE TESTS

Prof. S. S. Das, Department of Civil Engineering, VSSUT, Burla 5

Tests on Aggregates
The aggregates are tested for engineering properties to assess their suitability as road
construction materials. Various tests on aggregates have been formulated keeping in
view the following parameters:
(1) Strength: The aggregates should be sufficiently strong, so that they can bear the
traffic load without getting crushed. The name of the equipment used to measure the
strength of aggregates is known as the Crushing Strength Testing Equipment.
(2) Hardness: The aggregates undergo continuous wear and tear under the wheels of
vehicles. They also get rubbed with each other due to application of the traffic load.
These two phenomenon are known as abrasion and attrition respectively. Los Angeles
test, Deval’s abrasion test, Polished stone test are the tests under this category.
(3) Toughness: Toughness of a material is its ability to sustain impact loading. The
aggregates on an in-service road are also subjected to impact loading due to the vehicle
movement. Toughness of aggregates is measured by the impact test.
(4) Durability: Gradual deterioration of aggregates takes place as they are
continuously exposed to the environment. This aspect, called durability of aggregates, is
tested by soundness tests.
Prof. S. S. Das, Department of Civil Engineering, VSSUT, Burla 6
(5) Shape: Aggregates have varied shapes. Depending on the specific
construction purpose, angular or rounded aggregates are recommended for
highway construction. Too flaky or elongated aggregates are generally not
encouraged for construction purposes. Flakiness index, elongation index, and
angularity number are some of the indices used to determine the shape
characteristics of aggregates.
(6) Water absorption: The water absorption test determines the tendency of
aggregates to absorb water.
(7) Adhesion with bitumen: When aggregates are mixed with bitumen, a thin
film of bitumen is formed over the aggregates, which helps in holding the whole
mass together. Aggregates show a varied degree of affinity towards bitumen and
water. If the aggregates have a relatively higher affinity towards water, bitumen
is sometimes stripped off from the aggregates leading to failure of the
bituminous mix. Stripping test is done to check the adherence between
aggregates and bitumen.
Prof. S. S. Das, Department of Civil Engineering, VSSUT, Burla 7
Crushing strength test (IS:2386-Part 4-1963)
In the crushing strength test, a total load of 40 ton is
applied at the rate of 4 ton per minute on stone
aggregates (passing 12.5 mm and retained on 10 mm
sieve, surface dry condition) kept in a mould. The
aggregates in the mould are placed in three layers by
tamping each layer 25 times. They are then sieved
through a 2.36 mm sieve. The percentage weight value
passing through the 2.36 mm sieve with reference to
the total weight of aggregates gives the measure of
crushing strength of the aggregates. The mean of the
two such results rounded off to the nearest whole
number gives the aggregate crushing value.

The 10% fines test is an iterative test used to find the

load required to achieve a crushing strength of 10%.
As per the provisions of the Code, the 10% fines test is
recommended for the materials whose crushing
strength value is 30 or above as anomalous results
may be obtained for the crushing strength value at
and beyond 30. Prof. S. S. Das, Department of Civil Engineering, VSSUT, Burla 8
Abrasion test (IS: 2386 (Part IV) – 1963)
In the abrasion test, the aggregates are subjected to abrasion in a shielded (dust-tight)
container of specific dimensions with a specific number of steel balls and individual
weights kept inside. The container rotates at a given frequency for a given duration.
The abrasion test results tend to show a correlation with the impact test value for a
given type of aggregates.

Los Angeles test

In Los Angeles test, a cylindrical container (500 mm width and 700 mm diameter)
rotates at 20-33 rpm along its axis for 500-1000 times, depending on the aggregate
gradation. A measured quantity (5 or 10 kg depending on the gradation) of
aggregates is put inside the cylinder. Specified number of steel balls (depending
upon the gradation of aggregates), each of 48 mm diameter and of varying weights
(390-445 g), are put as abrasive charge into the rotating cylinder. When the test is
over, the aggregates are sieved through a sieve size of 1.7 mm, washed and dried in
an oven at 105-110°C. The difference in the weights (before and after the test),
expressed as a percentage of the original
Prof. S. S. Das, Departmentweight, is VSSUT,
of Civil Engineering, the Burla
Los Angeles abrasion value.
9
Prof. S. S. Das, Department of Civil Engineering, VSSUT, Burla 10
Polished stone test
Aggregates’ surfaces tend to get polished due to traffic. The
degree of polish imparted depends on the traffic conditions
(such as volume, weight, speed, acceleration, braking), on the
road geometry (such as alignment, grading), and on the nature
of the aggregates.
In this test, the aggregates of acceptable size are pasted on a
curved tile by means of mortar such that the aggregates
protrude out of the mortar level. Many such samples (fourteen
in number) placed on the curved tiles are mounted around the
periphery of a steel wheel. Wheels with pneumatic tyres are
allowed to rotate (320-325 rpm) over this steel wheel
maintaining a given normal force (40 kg) between them.
Emery powder and water at specified rate are sprinkled over
the surface of tyre and the specimen wherever they come in
contact. Thus, the aggregates so impregnated on the curved
tiles are subjected to accelerated polishing for a given duration
(3 hours) after which they are taken out from the steel rim and
tested for skid resistance in the British Pendulum Tester. After
applying a correction factor for the curvature of the sample,
the resulting parameter obtained is the Polished Stone Value
Prof. S. S. Das, Department of Civil Engineering, VSSUT, Burla 11
(PSV).
Impact test
Aggregate impact value gives the relative strength
of aggregates against impact loading. In the impact
test, an impact load of 13.5 to 14.0 kg of weight is
allowed to fall 15 times from a height of 38 cm on
to the aggregates (sieved through 12.5 mm sieve
but retained by 10 mm sieve) placed in a mould
(placed in the three layers by tamping each layer 25
times). The percentage of those passing through the
sieve size of 2.36 mm with respect to the total
weight of aggregates is calculated and expressed as
the impact test value of the aggregates. The
average of two such values rounded off to the
nearest whole number is referred to as the
aggregate impact value. Figure shows a
photograph of an aggregate impact test set-up.
Prof. S. S. Das, Department of Civil Engineering, VSSUT, Burla 12
Soundness test or Sulphate resistance test
This test measures the resistance of aggregates to disintegration caused due to
weathering. In this test, the aggregates are subjected to alternate cooling and heating
cycles in the presence of sulphates as abrasive agents. The sulphate solution
penetrates the fine cracks in the aggregates. Due to repetitive drying and wetting,
sulphate salts get deposited in these cracks and grow in size, causing disintegration
of aggregates along the weak shear planes. In this test, the aggregate samples are
weighed and immersed in a solution of sodium sulphate or magnesium sulphate.
After 16-18 hours of immersion in sulphate solutions, the aggregates are allowed to
drain for 15 minutes and then oven dried at 105-110°C, thus, completing one cycle.
The average loss in weight after 10 such cycles should not exceed 12% (for test with
sodium sulphate) or 18% (for test with magnesium sulphate) for aggregates to be of
recommendable quality.

Prof. S. S. Das, Department of Civil Engineering, VSSUT, Burla 13

Shape test
Flakiness Index: The Flakiness Index of aggregates is the
percentage of that mass of the aggregates whose least
dimension is less than 0.6 time their mean dimension. The
Flakiness test is applicable to the aggregates of size larger
than 6.3 mm.

The aggregate samples are first sieved through specified

sieve sizes. 200 aggregates of any fraction (say, those passing
through the sieve size x and retained by sieve size y) are
then chosen. The selected aggregates are next individually
made to pass through the gauge (slots close to rectangular
shape), specified for that size of fraction, chosen from the
metal gauges intended for flakiness testing. The slot width is
0.6 times the mean dimension of the aggregates (i.e. 0.6 x (x
+ y)/2). The aggregates passing through the particular slot
are identified as the flaky aggregates for that size fraction.
Similar exercises are carried out for the aggregates of other
size fractions. Prof. S. S. Das, Department of Civil Engineering, VSSUT, Burla 14
The mass of aggregates that passes through the corresponding gauge for each
size of fraction is calculated as a percentage of mass of the total number of
aggregates of the respective sieve fraction (say, pi). And the mass of the total
number of aggregates in an individual size fraction is expressed as the
percentage of the total mass of aggregates taken for the study (say, qi). Then, the
Flakiness Index (FI) is obtained as the sum of weighted percentage of the
aggregates passing through the appropriate gauge, i.e.

where m is the number of size fractions. This is in fact equal to the total weight of
flaky aggregates divided by the total weight of the aggregate sample taken for
the study.

Prof. S. S. Das, Department of Civil Engineering, VSSUT, Burla 15

Elongation Index. The elongation test, too, is not applicable to aggregates of size
less than 6.3 mm. The elongation index of aggregates is the percentage by weight
of the particles whose longest dimension (i.e. length) is greater than 1.8 times
their mean dimension. The test procedure is the same as that for the flakiness
index, with the exception that in this case a different type of a metal gauge
(length gauge) is used as the aggregates are tested for their longest dimension.
The elongation index, similarly, is the total weight of the aggregates retained in
the respective length gauges, expressed as a percentage of the weight of the total
aggregates gauged.

Prof. S. S. Das, Department of Civil Engineering, VSSUT, Burla 16

Angularity number. The angularity of aggregates is the converse of roundness. In
this case, oven-dried aggregates of appropriate size (passing through sieve size x
and retained by sieve size y), as recommended by IS code are chosen. The
aggregates are filled in three layers in a metal cylinder of specified dimensions
closed at one end. A tamping rod is used to apply 100 blows to each layer while
filling, and the top surface is levelled. Tamping should be done carefully to avoid
breaking of aggregates as otherwise they are adjudged unsuitable for angularity
testing. The angularity number (AN) is determined as

where
Wa is the weight of the aggregate mass
Ww is the weight of water occupying the mould
Ga is the specific gravity of the aggregates.

Prof. S. S. Das, Department of Civil Engineering, VSSUT, Burla 17

The AN value is rounded off to the nearest whole number. The number, 67, is a
reference number which signifies the maximum attainable density level (100 minus
voids) with spherical aggregates of the same size as that of the aggregates under test.
The more angular the shape of the aggregates, the more will be voids, resulting in an
increase in the angularity number. The aggregates suitable for bituminous pavement
construction should generally be angular in shape for better interlocking. In most of
the type of pavement construction with bituminous mixes, it is generally
recommended that the aggregates should have at least two fractured surfaces. The
angularity of aggregates, however, makes the mix less workable. For this reason, less
angular aggregates are preferred for concrete construction.

The Ministry of Road Transport and Highways (MORT&H) Specifications for Roads
and Bridge Works, uses another parameter, namely the ‘combined flakiness and
elongation index’, as a suitability measure of shape of the aggregates. This
parameter is determined by first finding the flakiness index of the aggregates of the
representative sample. The non-flaky aggregate particles are separated out and the
elongation index of only these aggregates is calculated. The values of flakiness and
elongation indices, thus found, are added up to calculate the ‘combined flakiness and
Prof. S. S. Das, Department of Civil Engineering, VSSUT, Burla 18
elongation index’.
Specific gravity and water absorption of
aggregates
Concepts of two different specific gravities of
aggregates, namely (i) the bulk specific gravity
and (ii) the apparent specific gravity are
generally used for practical purposes. Their
definitions are explained with the help of (a) Oven dry aggregate [weight = A]
Figure, which shows that an aggregate assumes
two weights, A and B, at oven dry and saturated
(with water) surface dry conditions respectively.
If the weight of the aggregates in water is C (not
shown in Figure a) then the bulk specific gravity
is A/(B - C) and the apparent specific gravity is
A/(A - C). It may be noted that in the saturated
surface dry condition, water occupies the
(b) Saturated surface dry conditions [weight
permeable pores in the aggregate. This does not = B]
necessarily mean that all the aggregate pores
have been occupied by waterProf.
[Figure b].
S. S. Das, Department of Civil Engineering, VSSUT, Burla 19
The specific gravities of the aggregates can now be defined as:

The bulk specific gravity of an aggregate at a given temperature is the mass of the aggregate
divided by the mass of equal volume of distilled water at that temperature.

The apparent specific gravity of an aggregate at a given temperature is the mass of the
impermeable portion of the aggregate divided by the mass of equal volume of distilled water
at that temperature.

Based on the above concept, Indian specifications for determination of specific

gravities of aggregates have enumerated various recommendations for aggregates
of different sizes. For some size of aggregates, they can be directly weighed, when
immersed in water, with the help of a weighing balance (with sample suspension
facility). The smaller size of aggregates can be weighed using specific gravity
pychnometer. Oven drying as per Indian specifications should be done at 100-110°C
for 24 hours. The percentage water absorption is found out by calculating 100 x (B -
A)/A.
Prof. S. S. Das, Department of Civil Engineering, VSSUT, Burla 20
Stripping value test
As per the recommendation for the stripping value test, 200 g of aggregates, passing
20 mm and retained 12.5 mm, is heated up to 150°C. Bitumen is also mixed in a
separate container at 160°C. Aggregate and bitumen (5% by weight of dry
aggregates) are thoroughly mixed so that aggregates get properly coated with
bitumen. Bitumen-coated aggregates are put in a 500 ml beaker in normal air
temperature and allowed to cool down for two hours. Distilled water is added to the
beaker to immerse the aggregates completely and the whole set-up is kept for 24
hours in a water bath maintained at 40°C. After 24 hours, the individual aggregates
are visually tested to observe the percentage of surface area of the aggregates from
where the bitumen has stripped off. This exercise is repeated for all the aggregates.
The average of three such experimental results rounded off to the nearest whole
number is taken as the stripping value of the aggregates and bitumen considered.
There are various other tests to study the moisture sensitivity of bituminous mixes.

Prof. S. S. Das, Department of Civil Engineering, VSSUT, Burla 21

Bitumen
Bitumen or asphalt is well known and used since ancient times, because it is the oldest and widely
accepted structural material. It is used since 6000 BC as a waterproofing and binder material of great
quality.
• The Sumerians used to use it in the prosperous shipbuilding industry,
• Babylonians used it as a binder in the mixture for castle construction (Babel Tower).
• Asphalt was used by the Egyptians to mummify the dead bodies and to waterproof tanks.
• Around 3000 BC, the Persians also used bitumen for road construction.
• Finally, Herodotus and Plinius describe bitumen’s export and use.

Till the beginning of the 20th century, bitumen used was a natural product.

The first natural deposits were found at the Dead Sea (or Salt Sea) where bitumen used to emerge
from the bottom of the sea, floated to the surface and discharged into the banks.
Ancient Greeks called this lake ‘Lake Asphaltites’.

Natural asphalt also exists in the form of rocks, that is, rocks (mainly limestones or sandstones)
enriched with bitumen. This type of asphalt is known as rock asphalt or tar sand.
Prof. S. S. Das, Department of Civil Engineering, VSSUT, Burla 22
Naturally occurring bitumen is commonly known as asphalt.
Asphalt derived from Greek word asphaltos was used during Homeric times, means a
stable or solid substance. Afterwards, it was used by the Romans (asphaltus); hence, the
term asphaltic, or even its root, exists until now in all modern languages.
Rock asphalts are porous limestone and sandstone rocks into which natural asphalt is
impregnated. Rock asphalts are found in Italy, Sicily, and California and these materials are
excellent from the road construction point of view.
There are asphalt lakes, too, found in Trinidad and Iraq and are called lake asphalt.
Tar is produced from destructive distillation of coke, and pitch is produced from fractional
distillation of tar.
Tar is not encouraged to be used for bituminous pavement construction nowadays,
because of its low durability and high temperature susceptibility.
Bitumen is derived from fractional distillation of petroleum.
Prof. S. S. Das, Department of Civil Engineering, VSSUT, Burla 23
Asphalt cement and tar are considered bituminous materials. Quite often, these two terms
are used interchangeably due to misconception resulting from their similarity in
appearance.

Asphalt cement and tar are two distinctly different materials with different origins and
different chemical and physical characteristic.

Asphalt cement is a dark brown to black cementitious materials either its naturally
occurred or produced by petroleum distillation.

Tar however, is primarily manufactured from the destructive distillation of bituminous coal
and has a very distinct ordor.

Prof. S. S. Das, Department of Civil Engineering, VSSUT, Burla 24

Production Process

• Produced by fractional distillation of Crude oil.

• Crude Oil heated to 300 to 350OC in distillation column. Lighter fractions separated at
different column heights. Bottom product called long residue.
• Long residue heated upto 450OC in Vacuum distillation column. Bottom residue (short
residue) used for manufacturing Bitumen.
• Hot air is blown through short residue OR blended with superior quality bottom
products to achieve desired consistency / penetration.

Prof. S. S. Das, Department of Civil Engineering, VSSUT, Burla 25

Prof. S. S. Das, Department of Civil Engineering, VSSUT, Burla 26
 Composition of Bitumen Elemental Analysis
• Chemical composition depends on origin of Crude Oil
and refining process. • Carbon 82 – 88%
• Chemical composition is extremely complex. • Hydrogen 8 – 11%
• Astronomically large number of Molecules with different • Sulphur 0 – 6%
chemical structures. Not feasible to attempt a complete • Oxygen 0 - 1.5%
analysis of Bitumen. • Nitrogen 0 – 1%
• Elemental composition of Bitumen provides little
information of the types of molecular structure present
in Bitumen.

Bitumen components
The bitumen components are classified into four classes of compounds:
• saturates, saturated hydrocarbons, % saturates correlates with a softening point of the
material
• Naphthenic aromatics, consisting of partially hydrogenated polycyclic aromatic compounds.
• Polar aromatics, consisting of high molecular weight phenols and carboxylic acids
• Asphaltenes, consisting of high molecular weight phenols and heterocyclic compounds27
Prof. S. S. Das, Department of Civil Engineering, VSSUT, Burla
Different forms of bitumen
Cutback bitumen
Normal practice is to heat bitumen to reduce its viscosity. In some
situations preference is given to use liquid binders such as cutback
bitumen. In cutback bitumen suitable solvent is used to lower the
viscosity of the bitumen. From the environmental point of view also
cutback bitumen is preferred. The solvent from the bituminous material
will evaporate and the bitumen will bind the aggregate. Cutback
bitumen is used for cold weather bituminous road construction and
maintenance. The distillates used for preparation of cutback bitumen
are naphtha, kerosene, diesel oil, and furnace oil. There are different
types of cutback bitumen like rapid curing (RC), medium curing (MC),
and slow curing (SC). RC is recommended for surface dressing and
patchwork. MC is recommended for premix with less quantity of fine
aggregates. SC is used for premix with appreciable quantity of fine
aggregates.

Prof. S. S. Das, Department of Civil Engineering, VSSUT, Burla 28

Bitumen Emulsion
Bitumen emulsion is a liquid product in which bitumen is suspended in a
finely divided condition in an aqueous medium and stabilised by
suitable material. Normally cationic type emulsions are used in India.
The bitumen content in the emulsion is around 60% and the remaining
is water. When the emulsion is applied on the road it breaks down
resulting in release of water and the mix starts to set. The time of
setting depends upon the grade of bitumen. The viscosity of bituminous
emulsions can be measured as per IS: 8887-1995. Three types of
bituminous emulsions are available, which are Rapid setting (RS),
Medium setting (MS), and Slow setting (SC). Bitumen emulsions are
ideal binders for hill road construction. Where heating of bitumen or
aggregates are difficult. Rapid setting emulsions are used for surface
dressing work. Medium setting emulsions are preferred for premix jobs
and patch repairs work. Slow setting emulsions are preferred in rainy
season.

Prof. S. S. Das, Department of Civil Engineering, VSSUT, Burla 29

Bituminous primers
In bituminous primer the distillate is absorbed by the road surface on
which it is spread. The absorption therefore depends on the porosity of
the surface. Bitumen primers are useful on the stabilised surfaces and
water bound macadam base courses. Bituminous primers are generally
prepared on road sites by mixing penetration bitumen with petroleum
distillate.

Prof. S. S. Das, Department of Civil Engineering, VSSUT, Burla 30

Modified Bitumen
Certain additives or blend of additives called as bitumen modifiers can
improve properties of Bitumen and bituminous mixes. Bitumen treated
with these modifiers is known as modified bitumen. Polymer modified
bitumen (PMB)/ crumb rubber modified bitumen (CRMB) should be used
only in wearing course depending upon the requirements of extreme
climatic variations. The detailed specifications for modified bitumen
have been issued by IRC: SP: 53-1999. It must be noted that the
performance of PMB and CRMB is dependent on strict control on
temperature during construction. The advantages of using modified
bitumen are as follows Lower susceptibility to daily and seasonal
temperature variations
•Higher resistance to deformation at high pavement temperature
•Better age resistance properties
•Higher fatigue life for mixes
•Better adhesion between aggregates and binder
•Prevention of cracking and reflective cracking
Prof. S. S. Das, Department of Civil Engineering, VSSUT, Burla 31
Laboratory tests and properties of bitumen
and bitumen emulsion

Prof. S. S. Das, Department of Civil Engineering, VSSUT, Burla 32

Penetration test.
Ductility test.
Softening point test.
Specific gravity test.
Viscosity test.
Flash and Fire point test.
Float test.
Water content test.
Loss on heating test

Prof. S. S. Das, Department of Civil Engineering, VSSUT, Burla 33

PENETRATION TEST
It measures the hardness or softness of bitumen by
measuring the depth in tenths of a millimeter to which a
standard loaded needle will penetrate vertically in 5
seconds. BIS had standardized the equipment and test
procedure.

The penetrometer consists of a needle assembly with a total

weight of 100g and a device for releasing and locking in any
position. The bitumen is softened to a pouring consistency,
stirred thoroughly and poured into containers at a depth at
least 15 mm in excess of the expected penetration. The test
should be conducted at a specified temperature of 25oC.

It may be noted that penetration value is largely influenced

by any inaccuracy with regards to pouring temperature, size
of the needle, weight placed on the needle and the test
temperature.

In hot climates, a lower penetration grade is preferred. The

Fig shows a schematic Penetration TestProf.
setup.
S. S. Das, Department of Civil Engineering, VSSUT, Burla 34
DUCTILITY TEST
Ductility is the property of bitumen that permits it to
undergo great deformation or elongation. Ductility is
defined as the distance in cm, to which a standard sample
or briquette of the material will be elongated without
breaking. Dimension of the briquette thus formed is exactly
1 cm square. The bitumen sample is heated and poured in
the mould assembly placed on a plate. These samples with
moulds are cooled in the air and then in water bath at 27 OC
temperature. The excess bitumen is cut and the surface is
leveled using a hot knife. Then the mould with assembly
containing sample is kept in water bath of the ductility
machine for about 90 minutes. The sides of the moulds are
removed, the clips are hooked on the machine and the
machine is operated. The distance up to the point of
breaking of thread is the ductility value which is reported
in cm.

The ductility value gets affected by factors such as pouring

temperature, test temperature, rate of pulling etc.

A minimum ductility value of 75 cm has been specified by

the BIS. Fig shows ductility Test Process.
Prof. S. S. Das, Department of Civil Engineering, VSSUT, Burla 35
SOFTENING POINT TEST
Softening point denotes the temperature at
which the bitumen attains a particular
degree of softening under the specified
condition of test.

The test is conducted by using Ring and Ball

apparatus. A brass ring containing test
sample of bitumen is suspended in liquid
like water or glycerin at a given
temperature. A steel ball is placed upon the
bitumen sample and the liquid medium is
heated at a rate of 5OC per minute.
Temperature is noted when the softened
bitumen touches the metal plate which is
at a specified distance below.

Generally, higher softening point indicates

lower temperature susceptibility and is
preferred in hot climates. Fig shows
Softening Point test setup. Prof. S. S. Das, Department of Civil Engineering, VSSUT, Burla 36
SPECIFIC GRAVITY TEST
The specific gravity of bitumen is defined as the ratio of mass of given volume of bitumen
of known content to the mass of equal volume of water at 27OC. The specific gravity can be
measured using either pycnometer or preparing a cube specimen of bitumen in semi solid
or solid state.

In paving jobs, to classify a binder, density property is of great use. In most cases bitumen
is weighed, but when used with aggregates, the bitumen is converted to volume using
density values.

The density of bitumen is greatly influenced by its chemical composition. Increase in

aromatic type mineral impurities cause an increase in specific gravity.

The specific gravity of bitumen varies from 0.97 to 1.02.

Prof. S. S. Das, Department of Civil Engineering, VSSUT, Burla 37

VISCOSITY TEST
Viscosity denotes the fluid property of bituminous material
and it is a measure of resistance to flow. At the application
temperature, this characteristic greatly influences the
strength of resulting paving mixes.

Low or high viscosity during compaction or mixing has been

observed to result in lower stability values. At high viscosity,
it resists the compactive effort and thereby resulting mix is
heterogeneous, hence low stability values. And at low
viscosity instead of providing a uniform film over
aggregates, it will lubricate the aggregate particles.

Orifice type viscometers are used to indirectly find the

viscosity of liquid binders like cutbacks and emulsions.

The viscosity expressed in seconds is the time taken by the

50 ml bitumen material to pass through the orifice of a cup,
under standard test conditions and specified temperature.
Viscosity of a cutback can be measured with either 4.0 mm
orifice at 25OC or 10 mm orifice at 25 orS. S.40Das,
Prof.
O
[Link] of Civil Engineering, VSSUT, Burla 38
FLASH AND FIRE POINT TEST FLOAT TEST
At high temperatures depending Normally the consistency of bituminous
upon the grades of bitumen material can be measured either by
materials leave out volatiles. And penetration test or viscosity test. But for
these volatiles catch fire which is certain range of consistencies, these tests
very hazardous and therefore it is are not applicable and Float test is used.
essential to qualify this temperature
for each bitumen grade. BIS defined The apparatus consists of an aluminum
the ash point as the temperature at oat and a brass collar filled with bitumen
which the vapour of bitumen to be tested. The specimen in the mould
momentarily catches fire in the form is cooled to a temperature of 5OC and
of ash under specified test screwed in to oat. The total test assembly
conditions. The fire point is defined is floated in the water bath at 50OC and
as the lowest temperature under the time required for water to pass its
specified test conditions at which the way through the specimen plug is noted
bituminous material gets ignited and in seconds and is expressed as the oat
burns. value.
Prof. S. S. Das, Department of Civil Engineering, VSSUT, Burla 39
WATER CONTENT TEST
LOSS ON HEATING TEST
It is desirable that the bitumen contains
When the bitumen is heated it loses the
minimum water content to prevent
volatility and gets hardened. About 50gm
foaming of the bitumen when it is heated
of the sample is weighed and heated to a
above the boiling point of water.
temperature of 163OC for 5 hours in a
specified oven designed for this test. The
The water in bitumen is determined by
sample specimen is weighed again after
mixing known weight of specimen in a
the heating period and loss in weight is
pure petroleum distillate free from water,
expressed as percentage by weight of the
heating and distilling of the water. The
original sample.
weight of the water condensed and
collected is expressed as percentage by
Bitumen used in pavement mixes should
weight of the original sample.
not indicate more than 1% loss in weight,
but for bitumen having penetration values
The allowable maximum water content
150-200 up to 2% loss in weight is allowed.
should not be more than 0.2% by weight.
Prof. S. S. Das, Department of Civil Engineering, VSSUT, Burla 40
 Tests for Bitumen with IS codes
Name of Test IS code Number
Penetration Test IS: 1203-1978
Ductility test IS: 1208-1978
Softening Point test IS: 1205-1978
Specific gravity test IS: 1202-1978
Viscosity test IS: 1206-1978
Flash and Fire Point test IS: 1209-1978
Float Test IS: 1210-1978
Determination of Water Content IS: 1211-1978
Determination of Loss on Heating IS:1212-1978

Prof. S. S. Das, Department of Civil Engineering, VSSUT, Burla 41

CBR laboratory test
The method was developed by the California Road Service in the 1930s and has been adopted
around the world. The original test method has been slightly modified by some organisations.
The modifications were mainly concerned on the moisture at compaction and on the
compaction effort. The procedure, however, in determining the CBR value remained
unchanged.

The test determines the soil’s bearing capacity from laboratory-compacted specimen,
expressed as CBR. CBR is defined as the ratio of the load required to cause a certain
penetration of the plunger into the soil material to the load required to obtain the same
penetration on a specimen of standard material.

The CBR laboratory test can be carried out by ASTM D 1883 (2007), AASHTO T 193 (2013) or
CEN EN 13286-47 (2012), IS 2720-16 (1987); other equivalent national specifications may have
been developed.

Prof. S. S. Das, Department of Civil Engineering, VSSUT, Burla 42

In this method the combination of load penetration test performed in the laboratory or in-
situ along with empirical design charts are analysed to determine the thickness of pavement
and its constituent layers.
For designing the flexible pavement this is one of the most commonly used method. The
thickness of the various elements comprising a pavement is determined by CBR values.
The CBR test is a small scale penetration test in which a cylindrical plunger of 5 cm in
diameter is used. Cross-section is penetrated into sub-grade material, at the rate of 1.25
mm/min.
Observations are taken between the penetration resistance i.e. test load versus the
penetration of plunger.
The penetration resistance of the plunger into a standard sample of crushed stone for the
corresponding penetration is called the standard load.

Prof. S. S. Das, Department of Civil Engineering, VSSUT, Burla 43

 Standard loads adopted for different penetrations for the standard material with a CBR
value of 100% is given below in the table.

Penetration (mm) Standard Load (kN)

2.5 13.44
5.0 20.16
7.5 25.80
10.0 31.20
12.5 35.32

The CBR test of compacted soil is then carried out. It is carried out in a CBR mould of 150
mm in diameter and 175 mm in height.
It is provided with a detachable collar of 50 mm in height along with a detachable
perforated base plate. A displacer disc, 50 mm deep is also to be kept in the mould
Prof. S. S. Das, Department of Civil Engineering, VSSUT, Burla 44
Required Equipments for Test
1. CBR Mould Inside diameter 150 mm
175 mm with detachable extension collar 50 mm high and
2. Total height of mould
detachable base plate 10 mm thick
3. Spacer Disc 148 mm diameter and 47.7 mm height

4. Rammers For light compaction – 2.6 kg @ 310 mm drop and

For heavy compaction – 4.89 kg @ 450 mm drop

Annular 2.5 kg each, 147 mm diameter with hole, 53 mm diameter

5. Slotted Masses
in the center
6. Penetration Piston 50 mm dia and 100 mm long
7. Loading Device Capacity 50 kN, movable head at a uniform rate 1.25 mm/min
8. Two Dial Guage Accuracy 0.01 mm
9. IS seives 4.75 mm and 20 mm size
10. Expansion measuring Appraratus Perforated plate of 148 mm diameter
Prof. S. S. Das, Department of Civil Engineering, VSSUT, Burla 45
Prof. S. S. Das, Department of Civil Engineering, VSSUT, Burla 46
•Take the soil sample which passes through 20 mm IS sieve, but it should retain on 4.75 mm IS
sieve.
•Take about 4.5 to 5.5 kg of the material and mix it with water content. Taken water content should
be equal to the optimum water content which is found by light compaction or heavy compaction
test.
•Sample is to be compacted at optimum water content and corresponding dry density.
•Further, fixing of the extension collar to the top of the mould is done. Also fixing the base plate to
the bottom is necessary.
•Spacer disc should be inserted over the base along with the central hole of the disc at the lower
face. Place coarse filter paper disc on the top of the displacer disc.
•Take the soil sample in the mould. Further compact it either with the light compaction rammer or
the heavy compaction rammer as favourable.
•For light compaction of the soil, it must be compacted in 3 equal layers, each layer is to be given
56 blows by 2.6 kg rammer with drop of 310 mm height.

Prof. S. S. Das, Department of Civil Engineering, VSSUT, Burla 47

•For heavy compaction, the soil must be compacted in 5 equal layers and each layer is should
be given 56 blows by 4.89 kg rammer with drop of 450 mm height.
•Remove the extension collar. Trim excess compacted soil carefully with a straight edge with
the top of the mould. Loosen the base plate and then remove the spacer disc and the base
plate.
•Weight the mould with the compacted soil. After weighing the compacted soil, cover the
filter paper disc on the base plate.
•Invert the mould with the compacted soil and clamp the base plate.
•Place a perforated disc fitted with an extension stem on the specimen top after placing a
filter disc.
•Place 2.5 kg annular masses to produce a surcharge equal to the mass of the base material
and wearing coat of the pavement expected. Minimum of two annular masses should be
placed.
•Further the mould assembly should be immersed in a tank full of water and allow free access
of water on the top and bottom of the specimen.
Prof. S. S. Das, Department of Civil Engineering, VSSUT, Burla 48
•Mount the tripod of the expansion measuring device on the edge of the mould and take the
initial reading of the mould and dial gauge.
•Keep the mould in the tank undisturbed for 96 hrs. Take the readings of the dial gauge every
24 hrs and note the time of reading.
•Maintain water level constant in the tank. Take the final reading at the end of 96 hrs.
•Remove the tripod and take out the mould from the tank. Allow the water from the specimen
to drain off for at least 15 minutes.
•Free water from the mould should be completely removed without disturbing the specimen
surface. Weight the mould with the soaked specimen.
•The mould containing the specimen along with the base plate should be placed in position
where the top face is exposed on the lower plate of the loading machine.
•Place the required surcharge masses on the top of the soaked specimen. To prevent upheaval
of soil into the hole of the surcharge mass, one 2.5 kg annular mass shall be placed on the soil
surface prior to seating the penetration plunger.
•Further adding to it, the remaining masses are also placed.
Prof. S. S. Das, Department of Civil Engineering, VSSUT, Burla 49
•Seal the penetration plunger at the center of the specimen to establish full contact between the
plunger and the specimen. The seating load should be about 40 N.
•The displacement dial gauge and the load dial guage should be set to zero.
•Already applied initial load to the plunger should be considered as zero.
•Apply the load on the plunger and keep the rate of penetration as 1.25 mm/min.
•At the end of the test, the plunger and the mould are raised and removed from the loading
machine.
•Take about 20 to 50 gm soil specimen from the top 30 mm layer for the water content
determination. If the water content of the whole specimen is required, take soil specimens
from the entire depth.

Prof. S. S. Das, Department of Civil Engineering, VSSUT, Burla 50

Bituminus Mix Design Basics

The right grade of asphalt cement

Relates to stability, workability, fatigue cracking, thermal cracking

The right type of aggregate

Relates to stability, workability, durability, stripping, skid resistance

The right gradation of aggregate

Relates to stability, workability

The right mix volumetrics

Relates to stability, durability, stripping, bleeding, skid resistance

Prof. S. S. Das, Department of Civil Engineering, VSSUT, Burla 51

Marshall Mix Design
During World War -II, the U.S. Army Waterways
Experiment Station (WES) in Vicksburg,
Mississippi was tasked with developing a mix
design method for airfield pavements to
address the poor performance exhibited by
existing asphalt pavements under ever
increasing aircraft wheel loads.

They refined a method first developed in 1939

by Bruce Marshall at the Mississippi Highway
Department into what we know today as the
Marshall Mix Design Method by adding
additional performance criteria to the ones that
Marshall used and creating rigorous test
specifications.
Prof. S. S. Das, Department of Civil Engineering, VSSUT, Burla 52
Marshall Mix Design Steps

1. Select bitumen suitable for the climate.

2. Select aggregates that meet the suitability criteria.
3. Create an aggregate blend that meets the gradation criteria.
4. Establish specimen mixing and compaction temperatures from the viscosity-
temperature chart for the asphalt cement.
5. Compact three specimens at each of five asphalt contents 0.5% apart spanning the
expected optimum asphalt content.
6. Determine the mix volumetric (Gmb, Gmm, VMA, VFB) of each specimen.
7. Measure the performance properties of each specimen at the high service temperature
of 60OC (140OF).

Prof. S. S. Das, Department of Civil Engineering, VSSUT, Burla 53

 Marshall Specimens
Approximately 1200gm of aggregates and filler is heated to a temperature of 175-190o C.
Bitumen is heated to a temperature of 121-125o C with the first trial percentage of
bitumen (say 3.5 or 4% by weight of the mineral aggregates). The heated aggregates and
bitumen are thoroughly mixed at a temperature of 154-160o C. The mix is placed in a
preheated mould and compacted by a rammer with 50 blows on either side at
temperature of 138o C to 149o C. The weight of mixed aggregates taken for the
preparation of the specimen may be suitably altered to obtain a compacted thickness of
63.5+/-3 mm. Vary the bitumen content in the next trial by +0.5% and repeat the above
procedure. Number of trials are predetermined.

20

Prof. S. S. Das, Department of Civil Engineering, VSSUT, Burla 54

 Marshall Specimens
Make 3 specimens at each
of 5 different asphalt
contents
4536 g
457.2 mm Traffic
Light Blows35/
Side
Medium 50
Heavy 75

More traffic = more compaction over time = denser asphalt

Prof. S. S. Das, Department of Civil Engineering, VSSUT, Burla 55

Properties of the mix
The properties that are of
interest include the
theoretical specific gravity Gt,
the bulk specific gravity of
the mix Gm, percent air voids
Vv, percent volume of
bitumen Vb, percent void in
mixed aggregate VMA and
percent voids filled with
bitumen VFB. These
calculations are discussed
next. To understand these
calculation a phase diagram Phase diagram of a bituminous mix
is given in Figure Prof. S. S. Das, Department of Civil Engineering, VSSUT, Burla 56
Theoretical specific gravity of the mix Gt
Theoretical specific gravity Gt is the specific gravity without considering air voids, and is given
by:

where, W1 is the weight of coarse aggregate in the total mix, W2 is the weight of fine
aggregate in the total mix, W3 is the weight of filler in the total mix, Wb is the weight of
bitumen in the total mix, G1 is the apparent specific gravity of coarse aggregate, G2 is the
apparent specific gravity of fine aggregate, G3 is the apparent specific gravity of filler and Gb is
the apparent specific gravity of bitumen,

Prof. S. S. Das, Department of Civil Engineering, VSSUT, Burla 57

 Mix Volumetrics

Weigh in Air Weigh in Water

Prof. S. S. Das, Department of Civil Engineering, VSSUT, Burla 58

Bulk specific gravity of mix Gm
The bulk specific gravity or the actual specific gravity of the mix G m is the specific gravity
considering air voids and is found out by:

where, Wm is the weight of mix in air, Ww is the weight of mix in water, Note that Wm-Ww
gives the volume of the mix. Sometimes to get accurate bulk specific gravity, the
specimen is coated with thin film of paraffin wax, when weight is taken in the water. This,
however requires to consider the weight and volume of wax in the calculations.

Prof. S. S. Das, Department of Civil Engineering, VSSUT, Burla 59

Air voids percent Vv
Air voids Vv is the percent of air voids by volume in the specimen and is given by:

where Gt is the theoretical specific gravity of the mix, given by equation earlier. and G m
is the bulk or actual specific gravity of the mix given by equation earlier.

27

Prof. S. S. Das, Department of Civil Engineering, VSSUT, Burla 60

Percent volume of bitumen Vb
The volume of bitumen Vb is the percent of volume of bitumen to the total volume
and given by:

where, W1 is the weight of coarse aggregate in the total mix, W2 is the weight of
fine aggregate in the total mix, W3 is the weight of filler in the total mix, Wb is the
weight of bitumen in the total mix, Gb is the apparent specific gravity of bitumen,
and Gm is the bulk specific gravity of mix given by equation

27

Prof. S. S. Das, Department of Civil Engineering, VSSUT, Burla 61

Voids in mineral aggregate VMA
Voids in mineral aggregate VMA is the volume of voids in the aggregates, and is the sum of
air voids and volume of bitumen, and is calculated from

where, Vv is the percent air voids in the mix, and Vb is percent bitumen content in the mix,
given by equation earlier.

Voids filled with bitumen VFB

Voids filled with bitumen VFB is the voids in the mineral aggregate frame work filled with
the bitumen, and is calculated as:

where, Vb is percent bitumen content in the mix, and VMA is the percent voids in the
mineral aggregate, given by equation earlier. 27

Prof. S. S. Das, Department of Civil Engineering, VSSUT, Burla 62

Determine Marshall stability and flow

Marshall stability of a test specimen is the maximum load required to produce failure
when the specimen is preheated to a prescribed temperature placed in a special test head
and the load is applied at a constant strain (5 cm per minute). While the stability test is in
progress dial gauge is used to measure the vertical deformation of the specimen. The
deformation at the failure point expressed in units of 0.25 mm is called the Marshall flow
value of the specimen.

Prof. S. S. Das, Department of Civil Engineering, VSSUT, Burla 63

 Correction factors for Marshall stability values
Apply stability correction
Volume of Thickness of Correction
Specimen (cm) specimen (mm) Factor
It is possible while making the
specimen the thickness slightly
vary from the standard 457 - 470 57.1 1.19
specification of 63.5 mm. 471 - 482 68.7 1.14
Therefore, measured stability 483 - 495 60.3 1.09
values need to be corrected to 496 - 508 61.9 1.04
those which would have been
obtained if the specimens had 509 - 522 63.5 1.00
been exactly 63.5 mm. This is 523 - 535 65.1 0.96
done by multiplying each 536 - 546 66.7 0.93
measured stability value by an 547 - 559 68.3 0.89
appropriated correlation factors
as given in Table below. 560 - 573 69.9 0.86
Prof. S. S. Das, Department of Civil Engineering, VSSUT, Burla 64
Prepare graphical plots

The average value of the above properties are determined for each mix with different
bitumen content and the following graphical plots are prepared:

• Binder content versus corrected Marshall stability

• Binder content versus Marshall flow
• Binder content versus percentage of void (Vv) in the total mix
• Binder content versus voids filled with bitumen (VFB)
• Binder content versus unit weight or bulk specific gravity (Gm)

Prof. S. S. Das, Department of Civil Engineering, VSSUT, Burla 65

Determine optimum bitumen content
Determine the optimum binder content for the
mix design by taking average value of the following
three bitumen contents found form the graphs
obtained in the previous step.
• Binder content corresponding to maximum
Marshall mix design specification
stability
Test Property Specified Value
• Binder content corresponding to maximum bulk
Marshall stability, kg 340 (minimum)
specific gravity (Gm)
Flow value, 0.25 mm units 8 - 17
• Binder content corresponding to the median of Percent air voids in the mix % 3-5
designed limits of percent air voids (Vv) in the Voids filled with bitumen % 75 - 85
total mix (i.e. 4%)
The stability value, flow value, and VFB are
checked with Marshall mix design specification
chart given in Table below. Mixes with very high
stability value and low flow value are not desirable
as the pavements constructed Prof.
with such mixes are
S. S. Das, Department of Civil Engineering, VSSUT, Burla 66
likely to develop cracks due to heavy moving loads.
 Performance Testing
After being weighed in air and water, the specimen is heated for 20-30 minutes in a water
bath at 60ºC in preparation for performance testing.
The performance test used in Marshall mix design is called the stability and flow test. The
heated specimen is placed in a compression testing machine (called a Marshall tester)
between two semi-circular loading heads. It is then loaded at a constant rate of 5 cm/min
until a peak load is determined.

Prof. S. S. Das, Department of Civil Engineering, VSSUT, Burla 67

 Performance Testing
The maximum load (in pounds) recorded during the test is termed the
Marshall stability and the amount of head travel (specimen compression)
needed to reach that load (in units of 0.25 mm) is termed the flow.

Prof. S. S. Das, Department of Civil Engineering, VSSUT, Burla 68

Performance Testing

load
(Kn)

stability

60oC

flow

deflectio

n
(0.25 mm)

Prof. S. S. Das, Department of Civil Engineering, VSSUT, Burla 69

Stability and Flow
Tester

Prof. S. S. Das, Department of Civil Engineering, VSSUT, Burla 70

 Marshall Mix Design
Steps
The previous steps are repeated 15 times (to make 3 specimens at each of 5 different
asphalt contents). At that point, we have collected all of the information that we need
to do our mix design.
Here “mix design” means finding an asphalt content for this trial aggregate blend that
produces specimens whose mix volumetrics (VTM, VMA, and VFA) and
performance properties (stability and flow) meet all of the specifications.

Prof. S. S. Das, Department of Civil Engineering, VSSUT, Burla 71

 Optimum Asphalt Content
The Asphalt Institute suggests the optimum asphalt content is the average of the
three asphalt contents determined from the plots. Based on the values taken from the
example plots, the optimum asphalt content for this trial aggregate blend is 4.7%.

Prof. S. S. Das, Department of Civil Engineering, VSSUT, Burla 72

 Optimum Bitumen Content
Asphalt Institute Procedure

Maximum Maximum 4% Air

Density Stability Voids

5.1  4.7  4.3

BC   4.7%
3

Prof. S. S. Das, Department of Civil Engineering, VSSUT, Burla 73