CHAPTER 3: AGGREGATES - Are taken from native deposits with no change in

their natural state during

3.1. WHAT ARE AGGREGATES? production other than crushing, grading, or washing
●​ Aggregates are the natural or artificial Examples:
inorganic granular materials used with a sand, gravel, crushed stone, pumice
cementing medium to form mortar or concrete. ✧​ Artificial Aggregates
●​ Aggregates occupy around 70% to 80% other - Are those materials obtained either as a by-product
volume of the concrete,reduce shrinkage of an unrelated industrial
effects and minimize costs. process or by a special manufacturing process like
heat treatment.
3.2. USES OF AGGREGATES Examples:
●​ Aggregates can be used in a number of ways in blast-furnace slag, expanded perlite, expanded
construction. vermiculite, burned clay
​ As a Load Bearing Material
​ As a Filling Material 3.5.2. Classification Based on Shape
​ As an Infiltrating Material ✧​ Rounded Aggregates
​ - Are naturally rounded aggregates that are formed
●​ In roads and railway ballast the aggregates are by water or weathering
used to resist the overall (static as well as - Need less cement paste to make concrete
dynamic) load, to distribute the load properly to - Interlocking between particles is poor
the supporting ground and to drain the water off - Not suitable for high strength concrete
the surface. In concrete the aggregate is used ✧​ Irregular Aggregates
for economy, reduce shrinkage and cracks and - Partly shaped aggregates are called irregular
to strengthen the structure. They are also used aggregates
in water filtration and sewage treatment - No specific shape
processes. ✧​ Angular Aggregates
- These aggregates have sharp edges and rough
3.3. METHODS OF EXTRACTING AND surfaces.
PROCESSING AGGREGATES - All types of crushed rocks are good examples for
●​ Underwater sources: this type of aggregates
✧​ Dragline excavationDredging - They need more cement paste, since voids are
●​ Land Sources: more in the aggregates
✧​ Blasting bedrocks - Ideal for producing high strength concrete
✧​ Track Drills ✧​ Flaky Aggregates
✧​ Crushers and Screens - Flaky aggregates have thickness less than 0.6
times mean sieve size to which particles belong.
3.4. GOOD QUALITIES OF AN IDEAL - Flaky aggregates reduce the durability of concrete
AGGREGATE ✧​ Elongated Aggregates
●​ An ideal aggregate used for the manufacturing - Individual particles are longer than they are wider
of concrete and mortar, should meet the or deeper and due to this appear to be long and thin.
following requirements: - This particle-type provides more surface area to a
✧​ It should consist of natural stones,gravels and concrete mix
sand or in various combinations of these
materials.
✧​ It should be hard, strong and durable.
✧​ It should be dense, clear and free from any 3.5.3. Classification Based on Size
coating. ✧​ Fine Aggregates
✧​ It should be free from injurious vegetable - Aggregates passing through IS 4.75mm sieve
matters. - Fine aggregates are basically natural sand
✧​ It should not contain flaky (angular) and particles from the land through the
elongated pieces. mining process, the fine aggregates consist of
✧​ It should not contain any material liable to natural sand or any crushed stone
attack steel reinforcement in case of reinforced particles that are ¼” or smaller
concrete - Examples:
(a) Natural Sand
Fine aggregates formed by natural disintegration of
3.5. CLASSIFICATION OF AGGREGATES rocks
3.5.1. Classification Based on Source (b) Crushed Stone Sand
✧​ Natural Aggregates Fine aggregates made by crushing natural gravels
(c) Broken Fine Aggregates
Obtained by crushing broken brick (Surkhi) -Many aggregates have a tendency to attract
moisture that is adsorbed around each particle and
Qualities of Fine Aggregates gives rise to the bulking phenomenon.
- Fine aggregate should be clean i.e. it should be (j)​ Specific Surface
free from lumps, organic material, etc. -The surface area per unit weight of the material is
- It should be strong and durable. called a specific surface.
- It should not react with cement after mixing. (k)​ Bulking
- Also, it should have a tough floor. -Bulking is a phenomenon that causes the
- It should not absorb greater than 5% of water. aggregates to swell by absorbing moisture
-These types of aggregates should not be soft and from the humid air.
porous. -The concrete mix design may be inaccurate and
enough additional sand is always added to
Properties of Fine Aggregates compensate for this swelling when this bulk sand will
(a)​ Size return to normal state.
-The largest size that falls under the limit of the (l)​ Bulk Density
exact set is 4.75 mm. -It refers to the amount of voids or spaces between
-Using the largest size will give more dense particles, as well as the total density of aggregates
concrete, but a mixture of all sizes is more desirable considered.
and more economical. -The unit weight of sand is between 17 and 25
-If cement mortar is prepared for masonry work or kNIm3.
plastering work, very fine types of
sand of similar size is used. Fine Aggregate Grading
(b)​ Strength
-The strength of the aggregate cannot ensure the
strength of the concrete.
- The strength of coarse aggregates are more
important.
(c)​ Shape
-Irregularly nodular shaped sand is preferable to
completely round grained sand.
-The shape of the aggregate plays a more important
role in the coarse aggregate than in the fine
aggregate.
(d)​ Specific Gravity Fineness Modulus (FM)
-The specific gravity of aggregates is the ratio of the - Obtained by adding the sum of the cumulative
density of water to its density. percentages by mass of a sample aggregate
retained on each of a specified series of sieves and
-It is used for concrete mix design and if not dividing the sum by 100.
specified the specific gravity is taken as 2.7 because FM = sum of cumulative percent retained/100
the specific gravity of most aggregates obtained
from different sources falls between 2.6 and 2.8. Calculation of Fineness Modulus of Sand
(e)​ Surface Texture - Let us say the dry weight of sample = 1000g. After
-Generally, round surface aggregates are better for sieve analysis the values appeared are tabulated
smooth aggregates, this property is also related to below.
coarse aggregate.
(f)​ Water Absorption
-Typically, for sand, water absorption is negligible, it
is desirable that water absorption should be kept
(g)​ Surface Index
-It is an empirical number that corresponds to a
specific surface of overweight particles given finer
fractions.
(h)​ Soundness
-It refers to the expansion and contraction of
Therefore, fineness modulus of aggregate =
aggregate when subjected to temperature changes.
(cumulative % retained) / 100 =
-A good, sound aggregates is one that exhibits
(275/100) = 2.75
minimal expansion or contraction under changing
temperatures.
✧​ Coarse Aggregates
(i)​ Surface Moisture
- The aggregates which is retained on IS 4.75mm ●​ Impact Test on Aggregates
sieve . Most commonly used coarse aggregates are - Impact value of aggregate will give aggregate
crushed stone, gravel, broken capability
pieces of burnt bricks, etc. against sudden loads of forces.
✔​ Coarse Aggregate Grading ●​ Soundness Test on Aggregates
- To determine the weathering resistance of
aggregate, a soundness test is conducted. If the
resistance against weathering is good for aggregate,
then it will have high durability.
●​ Shape Test on Aggregates
- Shape of aggregate is also an important
consideration for the construction of pavement.
Aggregate should not contain flaky and elongated
3.6.SIEVE ANALYSIS OF AGGREGATES particles in it. If they contain this type of particles,
- It is a process of dividing a sample of aggregate they will affect the stability of the mix.
into various fractions, each consisting of particles of ●​ Bitumen Adhesion Test on Aggregates
the same nominal size. The resultant of particle size - Bitumen adhesion test will give the stripping of
distribution is called the gradation. bitumen from the aggregate.
✧​ Gradation ●​ Specific Gravity on Aggregates
(a)​ Well Graded - Specific gravity of an aggregate is the ratio of its
- Well-graded aggregates have a gradation of mass to that of an equal volume of distilled water at
particle size that fairly evenly spans the size from specific temperature.
the finest to the coarsest. A core of well-graded ●​ Water Absorption on Aggregates
aggregate concrete shoes a packed field of many - This test helps to determine the water absorption
different particle sizes. value of aggregate.
(b)​ Poorly Graded
- This aggregate is characterized by a small
variation in size. It includes aggregate particles that
are near the same size. This means that the
particles of the aggregate pack together, leaving
relatively large voids in the concrete.
(c)​ Gap Graded
- Gap-graded aggregate consists of aggregate
particles in which some intermediate-size particles
are missing. A core of gap-graded concrete shows a
field of small-seized aggregate interspersed with
slightly large aggregate pieces embedded in a small
sized aggregate.

3.7. TESTS TO BE CONDUCTED

●​ Crushing Test on Aggregates
- The aggregate crushing value gives the crushing
strength of aggregate up to which it can bear the
load without fail.
●​ Abrasion Test on Aggregates
- Hardness property of aggregate is determined by
conducting abrasion test. Los Angeles abrasion
testing machine is used to conduct this test.
CHAPTER 4: CEMENT ✧​ If it is less, it decreases the strength and allows
the cement to set quickly.
4.1. WHAT IS A CEMENT? ●​ Silica
●​ Cement is a fine, soft, powdery-type substance. ✧​ An important ingredient which gives strength to
●​ It is made from a mixture of elements that are cement.
found in natural materials such as limestone, ✧​ Silica provides high compressive strength,
clay, sand, and/or shale. abrasion resistance, and bond strength to
●​ When cement is mixed with water, it can bind cement.
sand and aggregate into a hard, solid mass ●​ Alumina
called concrete. ✧​ Excess use of alumina quickens the setting
time but weakens the cement bonding.
4.2. HISTORY OF CEMENT ✧​ It also lowers the temperature of clinkers.
●​ Cement was first developed by, Joseph Aspdin, ●​ Iron Oxide
a 19th-century British stone mason, who heated ✧​ It helps the fusion of the raw materials during
a mixture of ground limestone and clay in his the burning stage.
kitchen stove and pulverized the mixture into a ✧​ It gives colour, strength, and hardness to
fine powder. cement.
●​ The result was the world's first hydraulic ●​ Magnesium Oxide
cement: one that hardens when water is added. ✧​ If present in small quantities, MgO imparts
●​ Aspdin dubbed his creation Portland cement hardness and colour to cement.
due to its similarity to a stone quarried on the ✧​ If excess in quantity, it weakens the cement.
Isle of Portland, off the British coast. ●​ Sulfur Trioxide
●​ In 1824, this brilliant craftsman obtained a ✧​ It can enhance the expansive performance of
patent for what would prove to be the world's cement materials and prolong the setting time
most ubiquitous building material, laying the of cement.
foundation for today's global Portland cement ✧​ A very small quantity is required in the
industry. manufacturing of cement.
✧​ If it is in excess, SO3 makes the cement
4.3. CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF CEMENT unsound.
●​ The raw materials used for the manufacture of ●​ Alkalies
cement consist mainly of lime, silica, alumina, ✧​ Only a small quantity is required.
and iron oxide. ✧​ High amount of alkali leads to difficulty in the
●​ These oxides interact with one another in the regulation of setting time, low amount leads to
kiln at high temperature to form more complex the discolouration of cement.
compounds.
●​ The relative proportions of these oxide
compositions are responsible for influencing the
various properties of cement, in addition to rate
of cooling and fineness of grinding.

4.5. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF CEMENT

●​ Fineness
✧​ It is the biggest factor in the strength of cement.
4.4. FUNCTIONS OF INGREDIENTS OF CEMENT Higher fineness leads to higher strength.
●​ Lime (CaO) ✧​ Fineness of cement affects hydration rate.
✧​ Major ingredient of cement. ✧​ Smaller cement particles react much quicker
✧​ Excess quantity of lime makes the cement than the larger particles.
unsound. ✧​ Fineness test is used to check the proper
✧​ If the lime is used more than 65 %, it may result grinding of cement.
in the problem of expansion.
●​ Soundness
✧​ The capacity of not changing the properties of ✧​ Cement has high compressive strength. Thus, it
the material, like volume change; when water is provides stability and durability to the structure.
added to it, is soundness.
✧​ Material with high soundness has a higher 4.6. MANUFACTURING OF CEMENT
strength. So cement should also have high ●​ There are more than twenty types of cement
soundness. used to make various specialty concrete,
✧​ Cement should be the cause of high soundness however the most common is Portland cement.
in mortar and concrete. ●​ Several types of Portland cement are available.
✧​ Some of the tests carried out to ensure the The most common, called ordinary Portland
soundness are: Le Chatelier Test & Autoclave cement (OPC), is grey, but white Portland
test cement is also available.
●​ Its name is derived from its resemblance to
●​ Consistency Portland stone which was quarried on the Isle
✧​ The consistency of cement is the minimum of Portland in Dorset, England.
water requirement to start the chemical reaction
between water and cement to form a paste. 4.7. 4 STAGES OF MANUFACTURING
✧​ In other words, the flowing ability of cement PORTLAND CEMENT
paste is the consistency. ●​ Crushing
✧​ Vicat Test is carried out to measure the ✧​ All except soft materials are first crushed, often
consistency of cement. in two stages, and then grounded, usually in a
rotating, cylindrical ball, or tube mills containing
●​ Setting Time a charge of steel grinding balls.
✧​ When water is added to the cement, it hardens ✧​ For limestone and clay, they are ground
and sets. separately to a size of about 25 mm in
✧​ Setting time may depend upon uniformity of crushers. Then it is pulverized into fine powder
cement, water-cement ratio, presence of in ball mills and tube mills.
admixtures, etc. ✧​ The crushing and pulverizing process is carried
✧​ The initial setting time of the cement should not out separately for each material.
be less, and the final setting time should not be
high. ●​ Blending
✧​ The best initial and final setting time for cement ✧​ The raw materials are then mixed in correct
is given as: proportions in dry powdered form with the help
✔​ Initial Setting Time: 30-45 Minutes of compressed air.
✔​ Final Setting Time: Below 10 Hours ✧​ This finely ground powder of the raw materials
is called raw mix.
●​ Heat of Hydration ✧​ In the dry process, these mixes are stored in
✧​ The chemical reaction between cement and silos; slurry tanks are used in the wet process.
water is called the heat of hydration. Thorough mixing of the dry materials in the silos
✧​ When water is added to cement, heat is is ensured by agitation and vigorous circulation
generated. This can affect cement quality induced by compressed air.
because excessive hydration leads to
undesired strength. ●​ Burning
✧​ Hydration depends upon the water-cement ✧​ The raw mix is then fed into the rotary kiln,
ratio, uniformness, temperature of curing, etc. made up of steel tubes.
✧​ The temperature at the firing end ranges from
●​ Strength of Cement about 1,350 to 1,550 °C (2,460 to 2,820 °F),
✧​ Compressive, tensile, and flexural strength play depending on the raw materials being burned.
a vital role in the durability and quality of ✧​ The burned product emerges from the kiln as
cement. small nodules of clinker. These pass into
✧​ Factors affecting the strength of cement are: coolers, where the heat is transferred to
✔​ Water-cement ratio of a mix. incoming air and the product cooled. The
✔​ Loading conditions clinker may be immediately ground to cement
✔​ Cement-fine aggregate ratio or stored in stockpiles for later use.
✔​ Age of cement
✔​ Curing conditions ●​ Grinding
✔​ Size and shape of a specimen ✧​ The clinker and the required amount of gypsum
✔​ The manner of moulding and mixing are ground to a fine powder in horizontal mills
similar to those used for grinding the raw
materials.
●​ Compressibility
✧​ About 3-5 % gypsum is added during grinding ●​ It has proved to be one of the leading
to the cooled clinkers to prevent flash set. engineering material of modern times and has
✧​ Clinkers are ground in ball mills and tube mills no rivals in production and applications.
after controlled cooling. Closed-circuit grinding ●​ Cements may be used alone (i.e., “neat,” as
is done in tube mills. A cyclonic separator grouting materials), but the normal use is in
ensures proper particle size distribution. mortar and concrete in which the cement is
✧​ After grinding the cement into a fine powder, it mixed with inert material known as aggregate to
is stored in silos. form a strong binding material.
✧​ With the help of an automatic machine, the ✧​ To prepare mortar
cement is then weighed and packed in bags of - Cement mortar is like a paste which is prepared by
50 kg. adding a certain quantity of water to cement and
sand mixture.
- Cement in this case is denoted as matrix while
sand is termed as adulterant.
- We know Cement has good binding properties
while other binding materials are also available, but
cement is mostly used because of its high strength
and water resisting properties.
- Generally, the cement sand ratio in a mortar is
between 1:2 to 1:6. The ratio of cement and sand
mix is decided based on the importance of work.
✧​ To prepare cement concrete
- Cement concrete is a major building material in the
world which is widely using because of its marvelous
structural properties.
- The ingredients of cement concrete are cement,
fine aggregate, coarse aggregate and water
respectively.
✧​ To Build Fire Proof or Heat Proof Structures
- To with stand against high temperatures and to
prevent fire accidents structures should be built with
great fire-resistant materials like cement.
- High alumina cement is more suitable material to
make concrete for the structures in high temperature
regions.

4.9. TYPES OF CEMENT

●​ Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC)
✧​ Most widely used type of cement manufactured
and used worldwide.
✧​ “Portland” is a generic name derived from a
type of building stone quarried on the Isle of
Portland in Dorset, England. OPC is suitable for
most general concrete jobs and mortar or
●​ Each step of cement's manufacturing process stucco construction projects.
requires monitoring with frequent chemical and
physical tests to ensure cement meets industry ●​ Portland Pozzolana Cement (PPC)
specifications. ✧​ Created by grinding pozzolanic clinker,
●​ Scientists may use oxide analysis to verify the sometimes with additives of gypsum or calcium
content and composition of cement samples. sulfate, with ordinary Portland cement.
●​ Some physical features they may inspect may ✧​ Compared to OPC, it has a higher resistance to
include: (Air content, Compressive strength, various chemical reactions within concrete.
Early age strength development, Increased ✧​ Used for projects like bridges, piers, dams,
heat of hydration, Lower heat of hydration, marine structures, sewage works or underwater
Particle size, Setting time) concrete projects.
4.8. USES OF CEMENT ●​ Rapid-hardening Cement
●​ Cement is widely used across the world in the ✧​ Contractors or construction teams may choose
construction of various engineering structures. this for its high strength in the early stages of
the hardening process. Its strength in three
 days is comparable to OPC strength at seven ✧​ Used for projects where cement is subject to
days with the same water-to-cement ratio. extreme weather like high temperatures or frost.
✧​ May have an increased lime content, combined
with a finer grinding process, or better strength ●​ White Cement
development. ✧​ A type of OPC that's white instead of Gray.
✧​ Used for projects with early-stage formwork ✧​ Prepared from raw materials that don't include
removal or when the focus is on increasing iron oxide and may be more expensive than
construction rates and decreasing costs other cement types.
✧​ Often useful in architectural projects and interior
●​ Extra-rapid-hardening Cement and exterior decorative projects like designing
✧​ May set and become durable even faster than garden paths, floors, swimming pools and
OPC and rapid-hardening cement. Construction ornamental concrete products.
professionals achieve this by adding calcium
chloride to rapid-hardening cement. ●​ Colored Cement
✧​ Useful for cold-weather concrete projects due to ✧​ Has properties similar to OPC and white
its fast setting rate. cement.
✧​ Manufacturers mix 5% to 10% mineral pigments
●​ Quick-setting Cement with OPC to achieve the desired color.
✧​ Similar to extra-rapid-hardening cement, this ✧​ Like white cement, contractors often use this
concrete type may set and become stronger type for decorative purposes and projects to
even quicker than OPC and rapid-hardening enhance their designs.
cement. Its grain and strength rate are similar to
OPC, but it hardens faster. ●​ Air-entraining Cement
✧​ Beneficial for time-sensitive projects or those ✧​ More workable with a smaller water-cement
located near stagnant or running water ratio than OPC and other types of cement.
Manufacturers add air-entraining agents like
●​ Low Heat Cement glues, sodium salts and resins to the clinker
✧​ Produced by monitoring the percentage of during the grinding process to create this
tricalcium aluminate in the mixture to ensure it cement.
stays below 6% of the whole. This helps ✧​ Commonly used for frost resistance in concrete.
maintain low heat during the hydration process,
making this cement type more resistant to ●​ Expansive Cement
sulfates and less reactive than other types of ✧​ Can grow slightly over time without shrinking
cement. during the hardening process.
✧​ Suitable for mass concrete construction or ✧​ Beneficial for projects like grouting anchor bolts
projects to help prevent cracking due to heat. or concrete ducts.
✧​ Can also be used in structure joints or to
●​ Sulfate-resisting Cement reinforce other concrete structures.
✧​ Helps reduce the risk of sulfate side effects on
concrete. ●​ Hydrographic Cement
✧​ Common use is for constructing foundations in ✧​ Created by mixing in water- repelling chemicals.
soil with high sulfate content. ✧​ Has high workability and strength and also
✧​ Beneficial for projects like canal linings, culverts repels water to prevent weather damage.
and retaining walls. ✧​ Used for projects such as dams, water tanks,
spillways and water retaining structures.
●​ Blast Furnace Slag Cement
✧​ Produced by grinding clinker with up to 60%
slag. This creates cement with many of the
same properties as OPC.
✧​ However, it may be less expensive to produce
than other types, making it a good choice for
financially conscious projects.

●​ High-Alumina Cement
✧​ A type of rapid-hardening cement created by
melting bauxite and lime together and grinding
it with a clinker.
✧​ Has high compressive strength and may be
more flexible and workable than OPC.