RADIOACTIVITY

DISCOVERY OF RADIOACTIVITY
In 1896 , French scientist Henri Becquerel accidentally discovered
that radiation emitted from uranium compounds affected
photographic plates even when the plates were wrapped in black
paper making the photographic plates darkened when developed .
This radiations were found to be capable of penetrating thin sheets of
metal . Becquerel concluded that the action was as a result of the
action of sunlight . However he ran into a cloudy weather , he
therefore put away the is uranium compounds placed on a wrapped
photographic plate in a dark cupboard . A few days later he observed
that the photographic plates were darkened without been exposed to
light . After further investigation Becquerel concluded that uranium
compounds have the ability to emit radiations without the need of
external light
Marie Curie and her husband Pierre Curie became very interested in
the work of Becquerel . In 1898 Marie Curie gave the name
radioactivity to the phenomenon , after they discovered that thorium ,
actinium ,polonium and radium also exhibited the same effects as
 Radioactivity is the spontaneous decay or
disintegration of the nucleus of an atom of an element
during which it emits alpha particle ( α – particle ) , beta
particle (β – particle ) or gamma rays (γ rays ) or a
combination of any or all the three and energy . Any
atomic element that is more complex than bismuth
( Bi )with proton number 83 is a radioactive element.
Radioactive elements are those elements that
spontaneously emit radiations from their nucleus examples
includes ; Uranium , Radium , Radon , Polonium e. t . c
Types and properties of radioactive emissions
There are three types of radioactive emission from
radioactive substances which are ;
 1 . Alpha (α ) particle
 2 . Beta (β ) particle
 3 . Gamma (γ ) rays
THE GEIGER – MULLER
TUBE
The Geiger- Muller tube is the most
versatile , useful and sensitive device of all
detection devices. When an ionising
radiation enters the tube by penetrating
the mica window the argon atoms
becomes ionised .
PR0PERTIES OF ALPHA (α ) PARTICLE
 1 . α - particles are slightly deflected by a magnetic field.
 2 . The direction of deflection of α – particles shows that they are
positively charged
 3 . They possess a great deal of momentum and energy and
they cause a great deal of ionisation when passed through gases
or air i .e they are capable of stripping atoms of electrons to
produce ions .
 4 . α – particles have very low penetrating power when
compared with other substances emitted during a radioactive
decay . Alpha particles can be absorbed by paper and air and it
can easily be stopped by sheet of aluminium.
 5 .α – particles moves with a velocity of 1.8x107 m/s
 NOTE
The properties of alpha (α - ) particles show that they are helium
nuclei 42He i.e they contain two protons and two neutrons .
PROPERTIES OF BETA ( β ) PARTICLES
1 . β – particles are strongly deflected by a magnetic field . The deflection is
in an opposite direction to that of an alpha particle.
2. The direction of deflection of β – particles shows that they are negatively
charged.
3 . β - particles have the same mass as the electron.
4 . The ease with which beta particles are deflected indicates that they are
light particles .
5 . β – particles can penetrate a few millimetres of aluminium foil i .e the
penetration power is medium but greater than that of α – particles.
6 . Beta particles also posses energy and momentum but not as high as that
of alpha particle ,therefore when they pass through gas they cause less
ionisation.
7 . They move with a velocity of 2x108 m/s however the velocity varies under
certain conditions .
NOTE
The properties shown by β – particles shows that they are electrons moving
with a velocity close to the velocity of electromagnetic radiation.
PROPERTIES OF GAMMA RAYS
 1 .Gamma rays are not deflected by a magnetic
field.
 2 . Gamma rays are highly penetrating and can be
stopped by a thick lead block.
 3 . Gamma rays produce much less ionisation
than beta particles .
 4 . Gamma rays are not charged.
 5 . Gamma rays travel with a velocity of 3x108 m/s
 NOTE
 The properties of gamma rays shows that they are
electromagnetic radiations .
A table summarising the properties of alpha
particle, beta particle and gamma rays
PROPERTY ALPHA BETA GAMMA RAY
PARTICLE PARTICLE
1 NATURE HELIUM ELECTRON HIGH ENERGY
NUCLEUS RADIATION
2 CHARGE +2 -1 NONE

3 PENETRATING LOW MEDIUM HIGH

POWER
4 ABSORPTION PAPER ALUMINIUM LEAD

5 IONISATION HIGH MEDIUM LOW

6. VELOCITY OUT OF THE UP TO 108M/S 3 X108M/S

ORDER OF 107 BUT VARIABLE
M/S
7 SPREAD OF ONE OR FEW WIDESPREAD ALL THE SAME
VELOCITIES DEFINITE
TYPES OF RADIOACTIVITY
 There are two types of radioactivity which are ;
 1 . Natural Radioactivity
 2 . Artificial Radioactivity
 ARTIFICIAL RADIOACTIVITY
Artificial radioactivity was first achieved by
Rutherford when he disrupted a nitrogen nucleus with
energetic alpha particles , to produce an isotope of
fluorine . The fluorine nucleus being unstable
disintegrate immediately into an oxygen nucleus and
a proton thus ;
2 He + 7N 9F 8O + 1H + Energy
4 14 18 17 1
 In artificial radioactivity an ordinary material not
normally radioactive is made radioactive by bombarding it
with radioactive particles , further examples of such
bombardments include the following ;
1
0 n + 6
3 Li 3
1 H + 4
2He + Energy
1
0 n + 24
12Mg
24
11 Na + 11H + Energy
1
0 n + 5927Co 60
Co + Energy
27

Isotopes can be made artificially by bombarding neutrons

or protons or deuterium at elements such as ; 3410S + 10n
10S + Energy
35

79
35Br + 1
0n
80
Br + Energy
35

Such artificially produced isotopes are unstable and

disintegrate with the emission of α – particles ,β –
particles and γ rays. They are therefore called
radioisotopes .
USES OF RADIOISOTOPES
Radioisotopes are used in ;
1 . Medicine as radiotherapy in treatment of cancer
2 . Industry to monitor and control the thickness of sheet materials such
as plastic , paper and metals .
3 . Agriculture as radioactive tracers and preservatives . It is also useful
in sterilization to kill germs
4 . In geographical research for radio – dating
5. It is also used to sterilize , surgical equipments to prevent
contamination.
6. In agricultural purposes e.g to carry out research to improve soil
content.
7. It is used for the production of hydrogen and nuclear bombs.
NOTE
Radioisotope or radioactive isotopes are isotopes that are made
artificially by bombarding neutrons or protons or deuterium at
NATURAL RADIOACTIVITY
Natural radioactivity is the spontaneous disintegration of the nucleus of
an atom during which α – particle , β – particle or γ gamma rays or a
combination of any or all the three and heat (energy ) released . When
a radioactive element undergoes radioactive decay, the atomic number
of the element changes and a new element is formed e.g if Radium 226
decays by emitting an alpha particle it turns into new element called
Radon. Radium has a mass number of 226 and an atomic number 88
hence it is denoted by 22688Ra. The alpha particle it emits is a helium
nucleus denoted by 42He. So when Radium 226 emits an alpha particle
the reaction can be written as
88Ra 2He + 86Rn + Energy
226 4 222

Radon – 222 can still decay further by emitting 2 beta- particles . When
the nucleus of an atom emits a beta particle , the atomic number of the
element increases by one unit , while the mass number remains
unaltered e.g
86Rn 2 0-1e +22288Ra + Energy
222

238
U 2 4 He + 20 e +230 Th+ Energy
TRANSFORMATION OF ELEMENTS
THROUGH RADIOACTIVITY
 In natural radioactivity , a radioactive elements
undergoes a decay when it emits α- particle , β –
particle or gamma rays. If a radioactive element X ,
with a mass number A and atomic number Z emits an
alpha – particle (Helium nucleus 42He) to form another
element Y, the nuclear equation is given by ;
 A ZX 4
2 He + A-4
Z-2Y
 Similarly if a radioactive elements emits beta particle
(electron , o-1e) and forms another element Y, the
nuclear equation can be written as ;
 A ZX o
-1 e + A
Z+1Y
 HEALTH HAZARDS FROM
RADIOACTIVE SUBSTANCES
Radioactive substances can be dangerous to the body if one is
exposed to the radiations for a long period of time. Since the
penetration power of alpha – particles is small they do not penetrate the
skin appreciably . However both gamma – radiation and beta – radiation
have very high penetrating power . If gamma – radiation and beta –
radiation penetrates the body in a large dose it can cause any of the
following ;
1 . Genetic mutations or genetic changes causing cancer and
undesirable hereditary effects .
2 . Cells in tissues can be destroyed and natural chemical reaction of
the blood disturbed
3 . It can damage the skin
4 . It can cause sterility
5 . It can cause blood abnormalities and finally death.
Those who work in radiological laboratories are advised to guard
against exposure to radiations . A thick block of lead or iron is the best
 HALF LIFE OF A RADIOACTIVE SUBSTANCE
Radioactivity is a spontaneous process which goes on independent of any external
control . It is not affected by pressure , temperature ,or by chemical reaction . It has
been observed that the rate of emission of particles by a radioactive element is first
high at the initial stage but becomes less and less with time . However it is possible to
measure the decay time ( half – life ) for half the atoms initially present in a
radioactive element . Half – life of a radioactive element is the time taken for the atoms
of a radioactive element to reduce to half the original number . The half life of a
radioactive element is the time taken for half of the atoms initially present to decay.
Thus if we have 1000 atoms of a radioactive element initially present whose half life
is 10 years , then after 10 years only 500 atoms will remain, after 20 years only 250
atoms will remain and after 30 years only 125 atoms will remain i.e left un - decayed.
Also Radium which has a half life of about 1600 years will have it’s atom reduced to
half their original value after that period of time but Radon has a half life of about 4
days , while Polonium has a half life of 3minutes.
NOTE ;
t = 0 . 693 / λ
Where ; t = time of decay
λ = decay constant
Decay constant is defined as the instantaneous rate of decay per unit atom of a substance .
 TEST
 1. state the following; Boyle’s law , Charles's law and pressure
law --------- 3 marks
 2 . The pressure on a fixed mass of gas is reduced from 3 atm
to 1 atm , while it’s temp. Increases from -73c to 127c . The
ratio of the final volume of the gas to it’s initial volume is ?
------3 marks
 3 . A gas occupies certain volume at 27c . If it is heated at
constant temperature, it’s volume is exactly doubled at a temp
of ? --------4 marks
 4 . How many particles and protons of atom are emitted in the
radioactive decay of 22488Ra to 21492Pb ----- 5marks
 5 Mention one hazard of exposure to gamma –radiation
-------- 2 marks
 [Link] the following in increasing order of penetration ;
 [Link] radioactive elements A and B have half lives of
10 years and 50 years respectively . Samples of a and
B initially contain equal number of atoms . What is the
ratio of the number of the remaining atoms of A to that
of B after 200 years . 2 marks
 [Link] the following in increasing order of penetration ;
alpha particle , beta particle and gamma rays 1 ½ marks
 [Link] diameter of a steel plug is 2.5cm at 250c. If the
linear expansivity of steel is 1.2X10-5/k , the
temperature at which the plug will fit exactly into the
hole of a constant diameter 2.499cm is ? 4 marks
 4. A metal cube of side 5cm and linear expansivity
2.0X10-5/K is moved from an ice – water into a boiling
water . The increase in the volume of the cube
is ? 2 ½ marks
TEST
 1 . a (i) Differentiate between heat and temperature ------ 2 marks
 (ii) Give two reasons why water is not considered as a good
thermometric liquid ------ 2 marks
 b (i) In a certain thermometer , the lower and the upper fixed point
are 20 and 200 respectively. What is the ;
 temperature in 0C when the reading in this thermometer is
70------------3 marks
 (ii) reading on this thermometer when the temperature is 700C
--------- 3 marks
 2 . a (i) Arrange alpha, beta and gamma particles in other of their
penetrating power ---------- 3marks
 (ii) Mention the three fundamental particles found in the atoms of
an element ----------- 3marks
 b explain how these particles are distributed in the atom of an
element whose atomic number is 3 and mass number 7 -------- 4 marks

 QUESTIONS
1. A radioactive substance of initial mass 8g has a half life of 10 days . 7g of the substance would have
disintegrated after ?
2. A substance of half life of 5 minutes has a count rate of 500 after 15 minutes . The count rate at zero time
was ?
3. A radioactive element has a decay constant of 0.077s . Calculate it’s half life .
4. A radioactive substance of mass 768g has a half life of 3 years . After how many years does this substance
leave 6g un decayed .
5. A radioactive substance has a half life of 3 days . If a mass of 1.55g of this substance is left after decaying for
15 days determine the original value of the mass
6. The half life of a radioactive substance is 14 days . If 48g of this substance is stored , after how many days
will 1.5g of the original substance remain ?
7. The half life of a radioactive substance is 5s . Calculate it’s decay constant .
8. A radioactive element decays to 1/8 of it’s original quantity 9 seconds . Calculate it’s decay constant
9. The half life of a radioactive material is 6 hours . What quantity of 1kg of the material would have decayed in
24 hours .
10. The count rate of an alpha particle is 400 per minute . If the half life of the source is 5 days what would be
the count rate per minute after 15 days
11. A radioactive nuclide of mass 6.0g has a half life of 8 days . Calculate the time during which 5.25g of the
nuclide would have decayed .
12. In 24 days a radioactive isotope decreases in mass from 64g to 2g . What is the half life of the radioactive
material .
13. A radioactive substance has a half life of 20 hours . What fraction of the original radioactive nuclide will
remain after 80 hours .
14. An element whose half life is 3 years has N atoms . How many atoms would have decayed after 9 years.
15. The half life of a radioactive substance is 2 seconds , calculate the decay constant
16. Two radioactive elements A and B have half lives of 10 years and 50 years respectively . Samples of a
and B initially contain equal number of atoms . What is the ratio of the number of the remaining atoms of A
17. A radioactive sample initially contains n atoms. The number of atoms that would have
disintegrated after four half- lives is ?
18. A radioactive material has an initial activity of 7000 counts per second and an activity of 875
counts per seconds after six hours . The half life of the material is ?
19. A sample of half life 5 years presently weighs w newtons. it’s weight in newtons 20 years ago
was ?
20. 23892U undergoes an alpha decay to become thorium . The proton number and nucleon
number of thorium are respectively ?
21. A nucleus 32He is formed from the decay of the nucleus of 31H . The decay is accompanied by
the emission of ?
22. Two radioactive elements P and Q initially have the same mass . If their half lives are 10 and
5 years respectively, the ratio of their masses (P;Q) after 20 years is ?
23.A substance has a half life of 3 mins , after 6 mins the count rate was observed to be 400.
what was it’s count rate at zero time.
24. In 180 minutes the activity of a certain radioactive substance falls to 1/8 th of it’s original value
. Calculate it’s half life.
[Link] isotope of a nuclide has a half life of 5.4 X 10 3seconds . Calculate it’s decay constant
26. The half life of a radioactive iodine is measured to be 8.0 days . A solution contained 1.5mg
of iodine on a certain day . Write down on a table the mass of iodine remaining after 8, 16, 24
and 32 days . Plot a graph of mass against time and from it deduce the mass of iodine that would
be left after 30 days.
27. Taking the half life of radium 226 has 1600 years , (i) what fraction of a given sample remain
after 4800 years (ii) what fraction has decayed after 6400 years ?
28. Radon has a mass number 222 an atomic number of 86 . Write the notation for an atom of
radon. Radon decays by emitting two beta particle to form radium – 222 write the equation for
29. In an experiment to determine the half life of
radon - 220 , the following results were obtained

TIME /S 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
COUNT RATE/S -1 30 26 23 21 18 16 14 12

By plotting the count rate (vertical axis) against the

time (horizontal axis) , determine the half life of
86Rn show clearly on your graph how you obtain
220

your answer .
[Link] many particles and protons of atom are emitted in
the radioactive decay of 22488Ra to 21492Pb
 TEST
ANSWER TRUE (T) OR FALSE (F) TO THE FOLLOWING
QUESTIONS;
1. Natural radioactivity is a phenomenon exhibited by heavy nuclei
only
2. Both x – rays and gamma rays originate from nucleus
3. For an alpha decay , the atomic number decreases by 2 , while
the mass number remains un changed
4. In a nuclide which emits beta particle , the proton number
decreases by 1 , while the neutron number remains un changed
5. When the nucleus of uranium splits , the total mass of the product
is equal to the total mass of the parent nucleus.
6. atoms of all elements are identical
7. Atoms of different elements have different atomic numbers
8. Isotopes of an element have the same mass number
9. Isotopes of an element have the same atomic number