Radioactivity

and Nuclear
Chemistry
Chemistry and Modern Living
ABCT1D01 & ABCT1301

Dr. Wing Leung WONG

Office: Y820 Tel: 3400-8871
[email protected]
1
Atoms • An atom consist of a nucleus
and electrons.
• Nuclei consist of neutrons
(neutral) and protons
(positive).
• Nuclei are unstable when
they are too large, or they
contain an unbalanced ratio
of neutrons to protons.
• Small nuclei need about 1
neutron to every proton to
be stable, while larger nuclei
need about 1.5 neutrons to
every proton.
• Also, for a neutral species, it
contains equal number of
protons (positive) and
electrons (negative).
2
Helium atom

Atomic number = 2
• 2 protons
• 2 electrons

Mass number = # protons + # neutrons

• i.e. 2 neutrons

3
 Isotopes
• Isotopes are atoms with
the same number of
protons but that have a
different number of
neutrons.
• Since the atomic number
is equal to the number of
protons and the atomic
mass is the sum of
protons and neutrons, we
can also say that isotopes
are elements with the
same atomic number but
different mass numbers.

4
 Radioactivity

• Radioactivity is the
emission of tiny,
energetic particles by
the nuclei of certain
unstable atoms.

Nuclear decay reaction (radioactive decay)

5
Photographic plate/film

6
 The Discovery of Radioactivity
Antoine-Henri Becquerel
(Nobel Prize in Physics 1903)
Radioactivity blackens a photographic plate
even through a layer of black paper

 Henri Becquerel, discoverer

of uranium radiation.
 A photographic plate with
potassium uranyl sulfate
crystals showed a bright
exposure spot
https://lamethodecurie.fr/en/article12.html
https://www.rsc.org/images/1%20Discovery
%20of%20Radioactivity_tcm18-17763.pdf 7
 • Marie Sklodowska Curie
(1867–1934), one of the
first women in France to
attempt doctoral work.
• Investigate any other
substances besides
uranium emitted uranic
rays.
• Discovered two new
elements, radium &
polonium, both of which
also emitted uranic rays.

Marie Sklodowska Curie

8
 Property of Radium
• Radium is glowing due to its radioactivity. When radium decays, it emits
energy in the form of alpha, beta, and gamma particles.
• These particles can ionize atoms and molecules in the surrounding air, causing
them to emit light.
• Radium was so radioactive that it glowed in the dark and emitted significant
amounts of heat.
• In the past, radium was added to some paints (radium paint) that were used
on watch dials. The radium made the dial glow.
• This is known as luminescence, and it is the same process that causes other
materials, such as certain types of phosphors, to glow.
• Now – replaced by phosphorescent or tritium source (an isotope of hydrogen)

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 Luminescence
• Luminescence is most conveniently defined as the radiation emitted
by an atom or a molecule following the absorption of energy and
entrance into an exited state.

https://sciencenotes.org/luminescence-definition-and-examples/
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 • Radioactive decay is the result of nuclear
instability
• Ernest Rutherford identified the nature of
alpha and beta radiations.
Radioactivity • Paul Villard found that gamma rays were
simply high-energy photons and of the same
type as X-rays.
• Types of radioactive decay: α particles, β
particles, γ rays (high energy photons)

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Radiation Basics
• Radiation is energy given off by matter in the form of rays or high-speed
particles.
• Radiation can be either ionizing or non-ionizing, depending on how it affects
matter.
• Non-ionizing radiation includes visible light, heat, radar, microwaves, and
radio waves. This type of radiation deposits energy in the materials through
which it passes, but it does not have sufficient energy to break molecular
bonds or remove electrons from atoms.
• Ionizing radiation (such as X-rays and cosmic rays) is more energetic than non-
ionizing radiation. Consequently, when ionizing radiation passes through
material, it deposits enough energy to break molecular bonds and displace (or
remove) electrons from atoms. This electron displacement creates electrically
charged particles (ions), which may cause changes in living cells of plants,
animals, and people.
• Five major types of ionizing radiation: Alpha Particles, Beta Particles,
Gamma Rays and X-Rays, Neutrons

Reference: 12
https://www.nrc.gov/about-nrc/radiation/health-effects/radiation-basics.html
Penetration Power of Radiations

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 • ‘Radioactivity is the emission of tiny, energetic
particles by the nuclei of certain unstable atoms.’
• Radioactive isotopes have an unstable
Types of Radioactivity combination of protons and neutrons, so they
have unstable nuclei. Because these isotopes are
unstable, they undergo decay, and in the process
can emit alpha (α) , beta (β) and gamma (γ) rays.14
 Alpha
• Composed of particles consisting of two protons Radiation
and two neutrons
• Represented by the symbol for a helium nucleus
• High ionizing power
• Low penetrating power (stopped by a thin piece
of paper)

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atomic mass numbers on each side must balance:

4 + 234 = 238

238 4 234
92
U → 2
He + 90
Th
2 + 90 = 92 daughter nucleus

atomic numbers on each side must balance:

How to writing Nuclear Reaction Equations

• Identify the type of nuclear reaction and the particle(s) involved.
• The sum of mass numbers and the sum of the atomic numbers
must balance on both sides.
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 More about alpha (α) particle radiation
• The alpha particle is the most massive of all particles emitted by
radioactive nuclei.
• Alpha radiation has the most potential to interact with and damage other
molecules, including biological ones. Of all types of radioactivity, alpha
radiation has the highest ionizing power.
• Because of its large size, alpha radiation has the lowest penetrating
power—the ability to penetrate matter.
• Alpha radiation does not easily penetrate cells; it can be stopped by a sheet
of paper, by clothing, or even by air.
• A low-level alpha emitter kept outside the body is relatively safe.
• If an alpha emitter is ingested or inhaled, it becomes very dangerous because
the alpha particles then have direct access to the biological molecules that
compose organs and tissues.

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 Beta Radiation
Composed of particles consisting of energetic
electrons represented by the symbol β.
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 0 + 14 = 14

14 0 14
6
C → -1
e + 7
N
-1 + 7 = 6 daughter nucleus

Beta decay – writing the equation

Beta decay of C-14 involves the loss of an electron from the
nucleus. Like alpha decay, the atomic numbers and atomic
mass numbers from each side must balance.
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More about beta (β) particle radiation

• Beta particles are much smaller than alpha particles and consequently
have a lower ionizing power.
• However, because of their smaller size, beta particles have greater
penetrating power; a sheet of metal or a thick piece of wood is
required to stop them.
• Consequently, a low-level beta emitter outside the body poses a higher risk
than an alpha emitter.
• Inside the body, however, a beta emitter does less damage than an alpha
emitter.

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Gamma Radiation
• The energetic photon emitted
by an atomic nucleus

• Represented by the symbol γ

• Gamma rays are

electromagnetic radiation, not
matter.

• Highest penetrating power,

lowest ionizing power

• First 60Co decays

to excited 60Ni by beta decay,
• then the excited 60Ni drops
down to the ground state by
emitting two gamma rays in
succession.
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 • Gamma rays have the smallest wavelengths and the More about
most energy of any wave in the electromagnetic
spectrum. gamma (γ)
• They are produced by the hottest and most
energetic objects in the universe, such as neutron ray radiation
stars and pulsars, supernova explosions, and regions
around black holes.
• They have the lowest ionizing power but the
highest penetrating power.
• Stopping gamma rays requires several inches of lead
shielding or thick slabs of concrete.

https://science.nasa.gov/ems/12_gammarays/ 22
 A neutron becomes a
proton.

Radioactivity: Expect the unexpected

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TJgc28csgV0

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 • Ionizing radiation has sufficient energy to
affect the atoms in living cells and thereby
damage their genetic material (DNA).
Fortunately, the cells in our bodies are
extremely efficient at repairing this damage.
The Effects However, if the damage is not repaired
correctly, a cell may die or eventually become
of Radiation cancerous.
• A very high level of radiation exposure
on Life delivered over a short period of time can
cause symptoms such as nausea and vomiting
within hours and can sometimes result in
death over the following days or weeks. This
is known as acute radiation syndrome,
commonly known as “radiation sickness.”

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https://www.epa.gov/radiation/radiation-health-effects
 ACUTE RADIATION DAMAGE

• Acute radiation damage results from exposure to

large amounts of radiation in a short period of time.
• The main sources of this kind of exposure are nuclear
bombs or exposed nuclear reactor cores.
• The high levels of radiation kill large numbers of cells.
• Rapidly dividing cells, such as those in the immune
system and the intestinal lining, are most susceptible.
• People exposed to high levels of radiation have
weakened immune systems and a lowered ability to
absorb nutrients from food.
• In milder cases, recovery is possible with time.
• In more extreme cases death results, often from
infection.
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https://www.cdc.gov/nceh/radiation/health.html
INCREASED
CANCER RISK
• Lower doses of radiation over extended
periods of time can increase cancer risk
because radiation can damage DNA.
• When the DNA within a cell is damaged, the
cell normally dies.
• Changes in DNA can cause cells to grow
abnormally and to become cancerous.
• Cancerous cells grow into tumors that can
spread and, in some cases, cause death.
• Cancer risk increases with increased
radiation exposure.
• It is difficult to separate an exact threshold
for increased cancer risk from radiation
exposure when compared to other factors.
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 • When ionizing radiation acts upon
gonads or germ cells, it may cause
damage to the genetic material
(mutations) which can lead to
genetically induced diseases (hereditary
GENETIC defects).
RADIATION • An association between radiation
exposure and the occurrence of
RISK: hereditary damage has not been
observed in humans to date.
Genetic • The International Commission on
Defects Radiological Protection (ICRP) assumes
that the parental radiation exposure to a
single (acute) gonadal dose of 1 gray
(Gy) leads to one additional severe
disease caused by radiation-induced
mutations in 500 births.

https://www.bfs.de/EN/topics/ion/effect/hereditary/hereditary_node.html
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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hhUuFCrDOlw
 There are a number of different units used to express the
intensity, exposure, or number of decay events associated
with radiation. The most common units are summarized in
the table below:

Measuring
Radiation
Exposure

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 Not All Radiation is the Same
• Radiation weighting factors (ωt) are designed to reflect different
efficiencies of energy transfer to biological tissues in different types of
radiation. The heavier and greater the charge of the radiation, the higher
the radiation weighting factor.
• Different radiation has different biological effects.

https://briansradiologylearningdiary.wordpress.com/2019/07/01/radiation-dose-and-risk-
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2019/
 RADIATION
EXPOSURE BY
SOURCE

• On average, each of us is
exposed to approximately
one-third of a rem of
radiation per year.
• This radiation comes
primarily from natural
sources, especially
radon, one of the
products in the
uranium decay series.
Consumer products with radioactive components or emissions:
https://www.epa.gov/radiation/what-kinds-consumer-products-contain-
radioactive-materials
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https://www.hko.gov.hk/en/radiation/monitoring/index.html

• It takes more radiation than the natural amount

Effects of Radiation to produce measurable health effects in humans.
Exposure • The first measurable effects, a decreased white
blood cell count, occur at instantaneous
exposures of approximately 20 rem.
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 Electromagnetic Spectrum
The energy of the radiation shown on the spectrum below increases from left
to right as the frequency rises.

See: Radiation Resources Outside of EPA

32
 Natural Sources of Radiation
(Background Radiation)

We are surrounded by  Space (cosmic radiation)

naturally-occurring radiation.  The ground (terrestrial radiation)
The Earth has always been  Air
home to radioactive  Water
materials. Here are some  Food
natural sources of ionizing
radiation: 33
Natural Background Sources
• Cosmic Radiation
The sun and stars send a constant stream of cosmic radiation to Earth, much like a steady
drizzle of rain. Differences in elevation, atmospheric conditions, and the Earth's magnetic
field can change the amount (or dose) of cosmic radiation that we receive.
• Terrestrial Radiation
The Earth itself is a source of terrestrial radiation. Radioactive materials
(including uranium, thorium, and radium) exist naturally in soil and rock.
Essentially all air contains radon, which is responsible for most of the dose that
Americans receive each year from natural background sources.
In addition, water contains small amounts of dissolved uranium and thorium, and all
organic matter (both plant and animal) contains radioactive carbon and potassium. Some
of these materials are ingested with food and water, while others (such as radon) are
inhaled. The dose from terrestrial sources varies in different parts of the world, but
locations with higher soil concentrations of uranium and thorium generally have higher
doses.
• Internal Radiation
All people have internal radiation, mainly from radioactive potassium-40 and carbon-14
inside their bodies from birth and, therefore, are sources of exposure to others. The
variation in dose from one person to another is not as great as that associated with
cosmic and terrestrial sources.

34
 Radon is the single greatest source of
human radiation exposure
Where Radon come from?

• Radon-222 is generated in the uranium series from the alpha decay of radium-226, which
has a half-life of 1600 years.
• Radon-222 itself alpha decays to polonium-218 with a half-life of approximately 3.82
days. Its final decay product is stable lead-206.
35
 • Radon—a radioactive gas—is one of
the products of the natural
radioactive decay series of uranium.
• Wherever there is uranium in the
ground, there is likely to be radon
seeping up into the air.
Chemistry and • If the gas is trapped in a dwelling
Health - enclosure, radon and its daughter
nuclides can attach to dust particles
Environmental and then be inhaled into the lungs,
Radon where they decay radioactively and
increase lung cancer risk.
• The radioactive decay of radon is by
far the single greatest source of
human radiation exposure.
• Radon-222 has a half-life of 3.8
days.
36
 • Radon is the major source of human radiation
exposure.
Radon (222Rn) • Naturally occurring uranium deposits in the earth
lead to the collection of radon in residential
basements.
• Significance of radon as a health threat is
controversial. 37
Radon is an Important Contributor to
Environmental Radioactivity

38
Do you know… 氡 氣 與 你 Radon and you
…the Radon gas level
in Hong Kong?

Hong Kong’s background radiation

levels
Levels may not be life-threatening -
0.23 microsieverts per hour is
equivalent to 2 millisieverts (mSv) a
year, or roughly one cranial CT scan -
constant exposure in small doses could
have cumulative effects.

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 Instruments Detecting Radioactivity
Scientists have developed the following four major types of instruments to
detect and identify radioactive materials and ionizing radiation:
 Personal Radiation Detector (PRD)
 Handheld Survey Meter
 Radiation Isotope Identification Device (RIID)
 Radiation Portal Monitor (RPM)

A handheld Survey Meter

A radiation
Isotope
Identification A Radiation Portal Monitor
A Geiger Counter (PRD) Device 40
 Detecting
Radioactivity

• Film-badge dosimeters consist of

photographic film held in a small
case that is pinned to clothing.
• The badges are collected and
processed as a way to monitor
exposure to radiation.
• The more exposed the film has
become in a given period of time,
the more radioactivity to which
the person has been exposed.

41
Radioactive decay &
half-life (t1/2)
42
 The time required for a quantity to reduce to half
of its initial value.

In nuclear terms, it’s the time required for ½ of

the radioactive ‘nuclides’* remaining.

Radioactive nuclides after 1st t1/2 = ½ of its initial

What is a value.
‘half-life
Radioactive nuclides after 2nd t1/2 = (½)2 of its
(t1/2)’? initial value.

!! A radioactive sample does not decay to zero

atoms in two half-lives—you can’t add two half-
lives together to get a “whole” life.
Radioactive nuclides refer to the nuclei
responsible for emitting radiation.

43
 Plotting of the
number of Th-232
atoms (y-axis) as a
function of time (x-
axis)

Th-232 has a half-life of 14

billion years.

44
Different Atoms have Different Decay Rates

• Thorium-232 has a half-life of about 14 billion years.

• Radon-222 (222Rn) has a half-life of about 3.8 days.

45
Each radioactive nuclide has a unique half-life that is not
affected by physical conditions or chemical environment.

46
 A Natural
Radioactive Decay
Series

• Uranium (atomic number 92) is

the heaviest naturally occurring
element.
• U-238 is an alpha emitter that
decays to thorium-234 with a
half-life of 4.47 billion years.
• The thorium daughter nuclide,
Th-234, is radioactive—it is a
beta emitter that decays to
protactinium-234 with a half-
life of 24.1 days.
• The protactinium daughter
nuclide, Pa-234, is also Decay chain:
radioactive, decaying to https://periodictable.com/Isotopes/092.238/index2.full.dm.p
uranium-234 via beta emission rod.html
with a half-life of 244,500 years.
47
Let’s have a 10 min break!

48
Applications of Radioactivity

49
 • Food irradiation is the
process of using radioactive
sources to sterilize
foodstuffs.
• The radiation works by
killing bacteria and viruses,
or eliminating their ability
to reproduce by severely
damaging their DNA or
RNA. Since neutron
radiation is not used, the
remaining food doesn’t
become radioactive itself,
leaving it safe to eat. This
method is also used to
sterilize food packaging,
Application – food safety medical devices, and
manufacturing parts.

50
 Application – Smoke Detector

• Some smoke detectors also use

radioactive elements as part of
their detection mechanism, usually
americium-241, which use the
ionizing radiation of the alpha
particles to cause and then
measure changes in the ionization
of the air immediately around the
detector.
• A change due to smoke in the air
will cause the alarm to sound.

51
Application – medical
• X-Ray, CT, and PET machines use X-
ray (X-ray and CT) and Gamma
radiation (PET) to produce detailed
images of the human body, which
provide valuable diagnostic
information for doctors and their
patients.
• Radionuclides are also used to
directly treat illnesses, such as
radioactive iodine, which is taken up
almost exclusively by the thyroid, to
treat cancer or hyperthyroidism.
• Radioactive tracers and dyes are
also used to be able to accurately
map a specific area or system, such
as in a cardiac stress test, which may
use a radioactive isotope like
Technetium-99 to identify areas of
the heart and surrounding arteries
with diminished blood flow. 52
Medical Applications
• An isotope scan, Technetium-99, is
often used as the radiation source for
bone scans such as this one.
• Phosphorus-32 is used to image
tumors because it is preferentially
taken up by cancerous tissue.
• Iodine-131 is used to diagnose thyroid
disorders.
• Cobalt-60 is used to sterilize surgical
instruments.

53
 • Treatment involves
exposing a malignant
tumor to gamma rays,
typically from
radioisotopes such as
cobalt-60.
• The beam is moved in a
circular pattern around
the tumor to maximize
exposure of the cancer
cells while minimizing
exposure of healthy
tissues.
Radiotherapy for cancer

54
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VyoCUWxqcNQ
 • Essentially high-powered versions of the types of
X-Ray machines used in medicine, industrial
Application – radiography cameras use X-rays or even gamma
sources (such as Iridium-192, Cobalt-60, or
radiography Cesium-137) to examine hard to reach or hard to
see places. This is frequently used to examine
welds for defects or irregularities, or examining
other materials to locate structural anomalies or
internal components. 55
APPLICATION –
RADIOGRAPHY
• Industrial radiography is also very
useful for secure, non-invasive
scanning at security checkpoints, such
as airports, where x-ray baggage
scanners are in routine use. Larger
versions of the same machines are
often used to examine shipping
containers all over the world.

56
 To estimate the ages of fossils and
Application artifacts
–
radiocarbon Ancient artifacts contain a
dating radioactive signature that reveals
their age.
This signature results from the
presence of carbon-14—which is
radioactive—in the environment.

57
 Radiocarbon Dating
The continuous formation of carbon-14 in
the atmosphere and its continuous decay
back to nitrogen-14 produce a nearly
constant equilibrium concentration of
atmospheric carbon-14.
• Carbon-14 is constantly formed in the
upper atmosphere by the neutron
bombardment of nitrogen.

The carbon-14 is oxidized to carbon dioxide

and incorporated into plants by
photosynthesis.
• Carbon-14 decays back to nitrogen by
beta emission, with a half-life of 5730
years.

58
Radiocarbon Dating

• The carbon-14 is incorporated into

animals because animals depend on
plants for food (they either eat plants or
eat other animals that eat plants).
• All living organisms contain a residual
amount of carbon-14.
• When a living organism dies, it stops
incorporating new carbon-14 into its
tissues. Since many artifacts are made from
• The carbon-14 present at the time of materials that were once living—such as
papyrus, wood, and other plant and animal
death decays with a half-life of 5730
derivatives—the amount of carbon-14 in
years. these artifacts relative to living organisms
 Using Radioactivity to Measure the Age indicates the date of their death.
of Fossils and Other Artifacts
59
• If an ancient artifact has a carbon-14 concentration that is 50% of that
found in living organisms, it must be one half-life, or 5730 years old.
• If the artifact has a carbon-14 concentration that is 25% of that found in
living organisms, its age is two half-lives, or 11,460 years old.

60
But where does the carbon come
from??????

61
6CO2 + 6H2O + sunlight + 6O2

C6H12O6

The Sun is the ultimate source of energy to power ALL

biological processes in Nature…

solar energy to convert CO

Higher green plants use 2 to
carbohydrates via Photosynthesis.
62
Nuclear Energy &
Nuclear Weapons
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=
3wxWNAM8Cso

63
The Discovery of Nuclear Fission: Fermi’s Role
• In the mid-1930s, Enrico Fermi, an Italian physicist, tried to
synthesize a new element by bombarding uranium with
neutrons.
• Fermi hypothesized that if a neutron were incorporated into
the nucleus of a uranium atom, the nucleus might undergo
beta decay, converting a neutron into a proton.

Enrico Fermi
(1901–1954)

64
• The essence of Fermi’s idea was the bombarding of uranium
with neutrons.
• Three researchers in Germany— Lise Meitner (1878–1968),
Fritz Strassmann (1902–1980), and Otto Hahn (1879–1968)—
repeated Fermi’s experiments and then performed careful
chemical analysis of the products.
• On January 6, 1939, Meitner, Strassmann, and Hahn
reported that the neutron bombardment of uranium
resulted in nuclear fission—the splitting of the atom.
Lise Meitner
(1878–1968)

65
The Discovery of Nuclear Fission
• The initial uranium atom is the U-235 isotope, which
composes less than 1% of all naturally occurring
uranium.
• The most abundant uranium isotope, U-238, does not
undergo fission.
• The uranium used for fuel in nuclear reactions must be
enriched in U-235 (it must contain more than the
naturally occurring percentage of U-235).
• The process produces three neutrons, which have the
potential to initiate fission in three other U-235 atoms.

66
The neutrons produced by the fission of one uranium nucleus
induce fission in other uranium nuclei to produce a self-
amplifying reaction.

67
History of the Atomic Bomb
• U.S. scientists realized that uranium enriched with U-235
could undergo a chain reaction. The result would be a
self-amplifying reaction capable of producing an
enormous amount of energy—an atomic bomb.
• To make a bomb, a critical mass of U-235—enough U-
235 to produce a self-sustaining reaction—would be
necessary. Albert Einstein

• Several U.S. scientists persuaded Albert Einstein to write

a letter to President Franklin Roosevelt warning of the
possibility of Germany constructing an atomic bomb.
• Einstein wrote, “and it is conceivable—though much less
certain—that extremely powerful bombs of a new type
may thus be constructed. A single bomb of this type,
carried by boat and exploded in a port, might very well
destroy the whole port together with some of the
Franklin Roosevelt
surrounding territory.”
https://www.amnh.org/exhibitions/einstein/peace-and-war/the-manhattan-project 68
 The Manhattan Project
• The largest scientific endeavor of its time, the race to beat Germany to the
atomic bomb was code-named “Manhattan Project.”
• Collection and synthesis of fissionable fuel (U-235 and Pu-239) were pursued
at Oak Ridge, TN and Hanford, WA. J. Robert Oppenheimer directed bomb
design at Los Alamos, NM.

Oak Ridge
69
 Critical Mass: Fissionable Fuel
• Lesser masses of fissionable material will not undergo self-sustaining
fission; too many neutrons are lost to the surroundings instead of being
absorbed by other U-235 nuclei.

(a) In a subcritical mass, the

fissile material is too small
and allows too many
neutrons to escape the
material, so a chain reaction
does not occur.
(b) In a critical mass, a large
enough number of neutrons
in the fissile material induce
fission to create a chain
reaction.
 Enriched uranium 90% U-235
70
A typical nuclear fission reaction

When a slow neutron hits a fissionable U-235 nucleus, it is absorbed and forms
an unstable U-236 nucleus. The U-236 nucleus then rapidly breaks apart into
two smaller nuclei (in this case, Ba-141 and Kr-92) along with several neutrons
(usually two or three), and releases a very large amount of energy.
71
 Atomic Bomb: Fat Man and Little Boy
• Two designs were constructed and a successful test carried out on July 16, 1945.
• Two atomic bombs (one uranium and one plutonium) were dropped on Japan.
• Little Boy (Uranium)
• Fat Man (Plutonium)

72
73
 Nuclear Energy and Modern Living
We should forget about weapons…….
We need to think about how to make use of
nuclear power in a better way to improve our
living quality!

74
 Nuclear Power
Nuclear energy is a controversial subject.
The pro- and anti-nuclear lobbies fight furiously……

How Can Nuclear Replace Coal in the Clean Energy Transition?

Information about nuclear power for reference:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rcOFV4y5z8c
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mZsaaturR6E 75
Nuclear Power: Using Fission to Generate Electricity

• A nuclear-powered electrical plant

can produce a lot of electricity
with a small amount of fuel.
• Nuclear power plants generate
electricity by using fission to
generate heat.
• The heat is used to boil water and
create steam, which turns the
turbine on a generator to produce
electricity.
• The water carrying heat from the
reactor core is contained within
separate pipes and does not come
into direct contact with the steam
that drives the turbines.

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 Nuclear Power versus Coal-burning Power Plants

• Nuclear • Coal-burning
Uses 5 million lb. of fuel to
Uses 100 lb. (45.4 kg) of fuel per day produce an equivalent amount
of energy
Produces enough electricity for a
city of 1 million people Pollutions

Does not produce air pollution,

greenhouse gases, or acid rain
Problems include waste disposal
and accidents

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 • The core of a nuclear reactor consists of enriched 3.5% U-235 uranium
fuel rods interspersed with retractable neutron-absorbing control rods.
• When the control rods are fully retracted from the fuel rod assembly,
the chain reaction can propagate itself.
• When the control rods are fully inserted into the fuel assembly, they
absorb the neutrons that would otherwise induce fission, shutting down
the chain reaction.

Technicians inspect the core of

a nuclear reactor, which houses
the fuel rods and control rods.

Control rod compositions include:

boron, cadmium, silver, or indium

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Nuclear Accidents--Is Nuclear Power Safe?
Nuclear power plants cannot detonate like nuclear explosions
 Enriched uranium at 3-3.5% U-235 vs. 90% U-235
Examples of nuclear accidents:
• Three Mile Island: March 28, 1979
• Chernobyl: April 26, 1986
• Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant, March 11, 2011
People response:
• Superior power plant design in the U.S. has meant no accidental nuclear deaths;
nevertheless public support for nuclear power is chilly.

Information about nuclear and radiation accidents and incidents:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_and_radiation_accidents_and_incidents
Timeline: Nuclear plant accidents
https://www.bbc.com/news/world-13047267
Most severe nuclear accidents in the past 50 years
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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=R-_lGthFm1M
 Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant Accident
• April 26, 1986, 1:24 am
• V.I. Lenin nuclear power plant
• Chernobyl, USSR
• Explosions in reactor 4
• 31 immediate deaths, 230
hospitalizations, countless exposures
to high-level radiation
• The consequences continues to this
day.

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 https://www.euronews.com/green/2023/08/22/fukushima-japan-
greenlights-water-release-from-nuclear-plant-despite-criticism

TOKYO, Aug 24 (Reuters) - Japan started releasing treated radioactive water

from the wrecked Fukushima nuclear power plant into the Pacific Ocean
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 Nuclear Fusion: The Power of the Sun
• Nuclear fusion is the combination of two light nuclei to form a
heavier one.
• In stars, hydrogen atoms fuse together to form helium atoms,
emitting energy in the process.
• Nuclear fusion is the basis of nuclear weapons called hydrogen
bombs. A modern hydrogen bomb has up to 1000 times the
explosive force of the first atomic bombs. These bombs employ
the following fusion reaction:

• In this reaction, deuterium (the isotope of hydrogen with one

neutron) and tritium (the isotope of hydrogen with two neutrons)
combine to form helium-4 and a neutron.
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 Feasibility of Nuclear Fusion for Electric Power
Generation
• Because fusion reactions require two
positively charged nuclei (which repel
each other) to fuse together, extremely
high temperatures are required.
• In a hydrogen bomb, a small fission
bomb is detonated first, providing
temperatures high enough for fusion to
proceed.
• Nuclear fusion has been intensely
investigated as a way to produce
electricity.
• One of the main problems is the high
temperature required for fusion to
occur—no building materials can
withstand these temperatures.
• Whether fusion will ever be an
available energy source still not known.

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Advantages and Disadvantages of using Nuclear Power
Some advantages:
• Nuclear power can produce vast amounts of power with small amounts of fuel;
• Nuclear power has been validated to be eco-friendly energy resource since it
produces energy without emitting greenhouse gasses into the atmosphere.
Some disadvantages:
• Safety concerns and Environmental concerns—Accidents such as meltdown of
nuclear reactor cause disasters;
• Disposal of radioactive waste. The wastes are radioactive and have very long half-
lives (thousands of years or more).
• Currently, in the United States, nuclear waste is stored on site at the nuclear power
plants.

What is the Future of Nuclear Power for our generation and the next??
It is now a unsolved challenge leaving for you all young scientists!!

What is nuclear waste, and what do we do with it?

https://www.world-nuclear.org/nuclear-essentials/what-is-nuclear-waste-and-what-do-we-do-
with-it.aspx 84
Question 1

Pd-100 has a half-life of 3.6 days. If one had 6.02 x 1023 atoms at the
start, how many atoms would be present after:
(a) 18 days, and
(b) 20 days?

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Answer 1a, after 18 days,
Nat time t = Nat initial x (1/2) number of half-lives at time t

• 18 / 3.6 = 5 half-lives

• (1/2)5 = 0.0313 (the decimal fraction remaining after 5 half-lives)

• (6.02 x 1023) (0.0313) = 1.88 x 1022 atoms remain

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Answer 1b, after 20 days,
Nat time t = Nat initial x (1/2) number of half-lives at time t

• 20 / 3.6 = 5.56 half-lives

• (1/2)5.56 = 0.0213 (the decimal fraction remaining after 5.56 half-

lives)
• (6.02 x 1023) (0.0213) = 1.28 x 1022 atoms remain

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Question 2

• A chemist determines that a sample of petrified wood has a carbon-

14 decay rate of 6.00 counts per minute per gram. What is the age of
the piece of wood in years? Given that the decay rate of carbon-14 in
fresh wood today is 13.6 counts per minute per gram and the half
life of carbon-14 is 5730 years.

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Answer 2
Nat time t = Nat initial x (1/2)
number of half-lives at time t

Nat time t /Nat initial = (1/2) number of half-lives at time t

Determine decimal fraction of C-14 remaining:

6.00 / 13.6 = 0.4411765 (44.1% left)

Determine how many half-lives have elapsed:

(1/2)n = 0.4411765
n log 0.5 = log 0.4411765
n = 1.18057

Determine length of time elapsed:

5730 yr x 1.18057 = 6765 yr

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Question 3

• You have 20.0 grams of 32-P that decays 5% daily. How long will it
take for half the original to decay?

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Answer 3
Nat time t = Nat initial x (1/2) number of half-lives at time t

In 24 hours, the sample goes from 100% to 95%

(1/2)n = 0.95
n log 0.5 = log 0.95
n = 0.074
24 hrs / 0.074 = 324 hrs (one half-life)

In 1 day, the sample goes from 100% to 95%

(1/2)n = 0.95
n log 0.5 = log 0.95
n = 0.074

1 day / 0.074 = 13.5 day (one half-life)

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Question 4

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Answer 4

14
C beta
6

4
He alpha
2

32
S beta
16

240
92
U alpha

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94
 End of this lecture
Hope you would enjoy.
Thank you !
You are welcome to meet me at Y820 or send me
questions by email:
[email protected]

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