CSC123: Data Communications

CSC123: DATA
COMMUNICATIONS
TRANSMISSION MODES
1 Tutor: Eric M. Ayienga
ayienga@[Link]
LEARNING OUTCOMES
 Explain the concept of synchronization.
 Differentiate between parallel and serial

CSC123: Data Communications

communication.
 Describe asynchronous, synchronous and isochronous
communication.

2
INTRODUCTION
Link 1 Modem/
Codec/
Protocols Modem/
Codec/
Link 1

Message DSU/DTU DSU/DTU Message

Formats Formats

. .
. Multiplexer Modulator Wide Area Network Modulator Multiplexer .

CSC123: Data Communications

(WAN)
. .

Link n Modem/ Modem/ Link m

Codec/ Codec/
Message DSU/DTU DSU/DTU Message
Formats Formats

Transmission Modes

Parallel Serial

Asynchronous Synchronous Isochrounous

Serial

Parallel  Used for long distance

communication:
 Used for short distances  Asynchronous.
 Synchronous.
communication. 3
 Isochronous.
SYNCHRONIZATION
 To send and receive information, the sending and
receiving devices must cooperate.

CSC123: Data Communications

 Timing of the bits must be the same for both the transmitter
and receiver in terms of the following:
 Rate;
 Duration;
 Spacing.
 The receiver must recognize the beginning and ending of the
set of bits for the character and must know when to be ready
to receive successive sets of bits.

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SYNCHRONIZATION
 Synchronization ensures that the timing of sender and
the receiver is the same.

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 If the timing of the receiver differs from that of sender, an
error will occur.

5
A TAXONOMY OF TRANSMISSION
MODES
 Transmission mode:
 The manner in which data is sent over the underlying

CSC123: Data Communications

medium.
 Can be divided into two fundamental categories:
 Parallel: Multiple bits are sent at the same time.
 Serial: One bit is sent at a time.
 Serial transmission is further categorized
according to timing of transmissions.

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PARALLEL TRANSMISSION
 Allows transfers of multiple data bits at the same time
over separate medium:

CSC123: Data Communications

 Binary data is organized into groups of n bits each.
 By grouping, n bits are sent at a time instead of one.

 The signals on all wires are synchronized so that a bit

travels across each of the wires at precisely the same
time.

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PARALLEL TRANSMISSION
 The figure omits two important details:
 In addition to the parallel wires that each carry data (called

CSC123: Data Communications

data lines):
 A parallel interface usually contains other wires
that allow the sender and receiver to coordinate
called control lines.
 To make installation and troubleshooting easy:
 The wires for a parallel transmission system are
placed in a single physical cable e.g. the printed
circuit board or ribbon.

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PARALLEL TRANSMISSION
 Advantages:
 High speed: it can send n bits at the same time

CSC123: Data Communications

 A parallel interface can operate n times faster than
an equivalent serial interface
 Match to underlying hardware: Internally, computer and
communication hardware uses parallel circuitry
A parallel interface matches the internal hardware
well.
 Disadvantages:
 Complexity.
 Cost.
9
 No addressing.
SERIAL TRANSMISSION
 In this mode, one bit follows another, so there is only
one communicating channel to transmit data between 2
communicating devices.

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SERIAL TRANSMISSION
 Involves sending one bit at a time.
 Two main reasons for most communication systems

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using serial mode:
 Serial networks can be extended over long distances at a
much lower cost.
 Using only one physical wire means that there is never a
timing problem caused by one wire being slightly longer than
another.
 Sender and receiver must contain a hardware that
converts data from the parallel form used in the device
to the serial form used on the wire and back.
 Known as the shift register. 11
SERIAL TRANSMISSION
 Advantages:
 Simple and easy to implement.

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 Cheap to implement.

 Disadvantages:
 Slower speed due to extra processes of parallel to serial
conversion and back.
 Extra information sent for control purposes.

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SERIAL TRANSMISSION
 The hardware needed to convert data between an
internal parallel form and a serial form can be
straightforward or complex:

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 Depends on the type of serial communication mechanism.
 In the simplest case, a single chip that is known as a
Universal Asynchronous Receiver and Transmitter
(UART) performs the conversion.
 A related chip, Universal Synchronous-Asynchronous
Receiver and Transmitter (USART) handles conversion
for synchronous networks.

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TRANSMISSION ORDER: BITS AND
BYTES
 In serial mode, when sending bits, it must be specified
which bit should be sent across the medium first.

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 Consider an integer: Should a sender transmit
 The Most Significant Bit (MSB)
 The Least Significant Bit (LSB) first?

 The term little-endian is used to describe a system that

sends the LSB first.
 The term big-endian is used to describe a system that
sends the MSB first.
 Either form can be used, but the sender and receiver
must agree. 14
TRANSMISSION ORDER: BITS AND
BYTES
 The order in which bits are transmitted does not settle
the entire question of transmission order:

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 Data in a computer is divided into bytes, and each byte is
further divided into bits (typically 8 bits per byte).
 It is possible to choose a byte order and a bit order
independently.
 Example:
 Ethernet technology specifies that data is sent byte
big-endian and bit little-endian.
 Shown is an illustration of the order in which
Ethernet sends bits from a 32-bit quantity.
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TRANSMISSION ORDER: BITS AND
BYTES
 Byte big-endian, bit little-endian in which the least-
significant bit of the most-significant byte is sent first.

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BYTES, BLOCKS, AND FRAMES
 If the underlying synchronous mechanism must send bits
continually and a sender does not have data ready to send at all
times a technique known as framing is used:

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 An interface is added to a synchronous mechanism that accepts
and delivers a block of bytes known as a frame.
 To insure that the sender and receiver stay synchronized:
 A frame starts with a special sequence of bits.

 Most synchronous systems include an idle sequence (or idle

byte)
 That is transmitted when the sender has no data to send.

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BYTES, BLOCKS, AND FRAMES
 Illustration of a frame on a synchronous transmission
system:

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TIMING OF SERIAL TRANSMISSION
 Serial transmission mechanisms can be divided into
three broad categories

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 Depends on how transmissions are spaced in time:
Serial Transmision Characteristics
Mechanism
Asynchronous transmission Occurs at any time:
•With an arbitrary delay between the
transmission of two data items.

Synchronous transmission Occurs continuously:

• With no gap between the
transmission of two data items.
Isochronous transmission Occurs at regular intervals:
• With a fixed gap between the 19
transmission of two data items.
ASYNCHRONOUS TRANSMISSION
 In asynchronous transmission, the timing of a signal is
unimportant.

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 Information is received and translated by agreed-upon
patterns.
 Patterns are based on grouping the bit stream into bytes.
 The sending system handles each group independently,
relaying it to the link whenever ready, without regard to
a timer.

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ASYNCHRONOUS TRANSMISSION
(CONT.)
 To alert the receiver to the arrival of a new group, an
extra bit called start bit is added to the beginning of
each byte.

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 To let the receiver know that the byte is finished, one or
more additional bits called stop bits are appended to the
end of the byte.
 Called asynchronous because:
 At the byte level, sender and receiver do not have to be
synchronized.
 But within each byte, the receiver must still be synchronized
with the incoming bit stream.
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ASYNCHRONOUS TRANSMISSION
(CONT.)
 When the receiver detects a start bit, it sets a timer and
begins counting bits as they come in.

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 After n bits, the receiver looks for a stop bit and after
the stop bit is detected, it ignores any received pulses
until the next start bit.

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ASYNCHRONOUS TRANSMISSION

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 Start bit:
Signals the beginning of a character.
 Stop bit:
The final element whose minimum is specified usually to 1,
1.5 or 2 bits.
 Parity bit:
For error checking and correction. 23
ASYNCHRONOUS TRANSMISSION
 It is well-suited to applications that generate data at
random:

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 Example
A user typing on a keyboard or a user that clicks
on a link.
 The disadvantage of asynchrony arises from the lack of
coordination between sender and receiver:
 While the medium is idle, a receiver cannot know how long
the medium will remain idle before more data arrives.

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ADVANTAGES OF ASYNCHRONOUS
TRANSMISSION
 Each individual character is complete in itself:
 Therefore if a character is corrupted during transmission, its

CSC123: Data Communications

successor and predecessor will be unaffected.
 Particularly suited for applications where the characters
are generated at irregular intervals:
 Example:
Data entry from the keyboard.
 Uses simple, cheap technology (UARTs).

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DISADVANTAGES OF ASYNCHRONOUS
TRANSMISSION
 Successful transmission inevitably depends on the
recognition of the start bits.

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 A high proportion of the transmitted bits (usually 3 out
of 11 if using ASCII code) are uniquely for control
purposes and thus carry no useful information:
 Wastes 20-30% of bandwidth.
 As a result of the effects of distortion the speed of
transmission is limited.
 Usable up to ~20 kbps.
 Has no addressing information.
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SYNCHRONOUS TRANSMISSION
 The bit stream is combined into longer frames which
may contains multiple bytes.

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 Each byte is introduced onto the transmission link
without a gap between it and the next one.
 No idle time between bits.
 After transmitting the final bit of one data byte, the sender
transmits a bit of the next data byte.
 The sender and receiver constantly remain
synchronized:
 Less synchronization overhead.

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SYNCHRONOUS TRANSMISSION (CONT.)
 Without gaps and start/stop bits, timing becomes very
important:

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 The accuracy of the received information is completely
dependent on the ability of the receiver to keep an accurate
count of the bits as they come in.

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SYNCHRONOUS TRANSMISSION
 Synchronization of the transmitting and receiving
terminals is maintained by special synchronization
characters, which align clocks at each terminal.

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 Preamble bit pattern to allow the receiver to synchronize to
the transmitter.
 Postamble bit pattern to mark the end of the transmission of
the block.
 The preamble is called:
 A synchronization character (SYN) in character oriented
protocols.
 A FLAG in a bit oriented protocol.

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BLOCK SYNCHRONIZATION
 Blocks of characters or bits (frames) are transmitted
without start or stop codes.

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 Frame:
 Data + Control Information.
 Clocks:
Keep the devices in step with each other.
 The exact format of the frame depends on whether the
transmission scheme is
 Character-oriented.
 Older.
 Bit-oriented.
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 Newer and currently used.
FRAMING
 A Data Link layer function whereby the packets from
the Network Layer are encapsulated into frames.

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 The data frames can be of variable length or fixed
length.
 Variable-length framing: The size of each frame to be
transmitted may be different.
 A pattern of bits is used as a delimiter to mark the end of one
frame and the beginning of the next frame.
 The two types of variable-sized framing are:
 Character-oriented framing.
 Bit-oriented framing.
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CHARACTER-ORIENTED FRAMING
 Data is transmitted as a sequence of bytes, from an 8-bit
coding system like ASCII.

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CHARACTER-ORIENTED FRAMING
 The parts of a frame in a character-oriented framing are:
 Frame Header: It contains the source and the destination

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addresses of the frame in form of bytes.
 Payload field: It contains the message to be delivered.
 A variable sequence of data bytes.
 Trailer: It contains the bytes for error detection and error
correction.
 Flags: Flags are the frame delimiters signaling the start and
end of the frame.
 Of 1-byte denoting a protocol-dependent special
character.
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CHARACTER ORIENTED PROTOCOLS
 Suited for transmission of text.
 The flag is a chosen character that is not used for text encoding.

If the protocol is used for transmitting multimedia messages, there

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
are chances that the pattern of the flag byte is present in the
message byte sequence.
 In order that the receiver does not consider the pattern as the
end of the frame, byte stuffing mechanism is used.
 Here, a special byte called the escape character (ESC) is stuffed
before every byte in the message with the same pattern as the
flag byte.
 In the special case an ESC sequence is found in the message
byte, then another ESC sequence is stuffed before it.
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CHARACTER ORIENTED TRANSMISSION
 Character oriented transmission can be used in two configurations
 The SYN character alerts the receiver about incoming data.
 The receiver accepts the data until the postamble character

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is seen.
 The receiver the looks for the next SYN pattern.

 The frame length is part of the control information.

 The receiver looks for a SYN character, determines frame

length, reads the indicated number of characters, then looks

for the next SYN character to start the next frame.

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CHARACTER ORIENTED PROTOCOLS
 Problems with character-oriented framing:
 It adds too much overhead on the message, thus increasing

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the total size of the frame.
 The coding system used in recent times have 16-bit, 32-bit or
64-bit characters that conflicts with the 8-bit encoding.

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BIT-ORIENTED FRAMING
 Data is transmitted as a sequence of bits that can be
interpreted in the upper layers both as text as well as
multimedia data.

CSC123: Data Communications

 The parts of a frame in a bit-oriented framing are:

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BIT-ORIENTED FRAMING
 Frame Header: Contains bits denoting the source and the
destination addresses of the frame.
 Payload field: Contains the message to be delivered.

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 A variable sequence of bits.
 Trailer: Contains the error detection and error correction bits.
 Flags: Bit pattern that act as the frame delimiters signaling the start
and end of the frame:
 Generally of 8-bits and comprises of six or more consecutive 1s.
 Most protocols use the 8-bit pattern 01111110 as flag.

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BIT-ORIENTED PROTOCOLS
 Suited for transmitting any sequence of bits.
 So there are chances that the pattern of the flag bits is

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present in the message.
 In order that the receiver does not consider this as end of
frame, bit-stuffing mechanism is used.
 Whenever a 0 bit is followed by five consecutive 1 bits in the
message, an extra 0 bit is stuffed at the end of the five 1’s.
 When the receiver receives the message, it removes the
stuffed 0 after each sequence of five 1’s.
 The un-stuffed message is then sent to the upper layers.

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ADVANTAGES OF SYNCHRONOUS
TRANSMISSION
 More efficient than asynchronous
 Overhead typically below 5%.

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 Used at higher speeds than asynchronous.
 The system is not so prone to distortion as
asynchronous communication and can
thus be used at higher speeds.
 Has a better addressing capability.

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DISADVANTAGES OF SYNCHRONOUS
TRANSMISSION
 If an error does occur, rather than just a single character,
the whole block of data is lost

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 Usually containing 100 or more characters.
 Has packetization delay.
 The sender cannot transmit characters simply as they
occur and consequently has to store them until it has
built up a block:
 Thus the system is unsuitable for applications where
characters are generated at irregular intervals.
 Requires error checking.
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SYNCHRONIZATION CHOICES
 Low-speed terminals and PCs commonly use
asynchronous transmission:

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 Inexpensive.
 “burst” tendency of communication reduces impact of
inefficiency.
 Large systems and networks commonly use
synchronous transmission:
 Overhead too expensive;
 Efficiency is necessary.
 Error-checking is more important.
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 Addressing is important.
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF
SERIAL TRANSMISSION
 Advantages
 Simple and easy to implement.

CSC123: Data Communications

 Cheap to implement.
 Disadvantages
 Slower speed due to extra processes of
parallel to serial and back.
 Extra information must be sent for control
purposes.
43
ISOCHRONOUS TRANSMISSION
 Designed to provide steady bit flow for multimedia applications.
 Delivering such data at a steady rate is essential:
 Because variations in delay known as jitter can disrupt reception (cause

CSC123: Data Communications

pops or clicks in audio/make video freeze for a short time).
 Isochronous network is designed to accept and send data at a fixed rate, R.
 Network interface is such that data must be handed to the network for
transmission at exactly R bits per second.
 For example, an isochronous mechanism designed to transfer voice
operates at a rate of 64,000 bits per second:
 A sender must generate digitized audio continuously.
 A receiver must be able to accept and play the stream.

44
SIMPLEX, HALF-DUPLEX, AND FULL-
DUPLEX TRANSMISSION
 A communications channel is classified as one of three
types (depending on the direction of transfer):

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 Simplex: The mechanism can only transfer data in a single
direction:
 It is analogous to broadcast radio or television.

45
SIMPLEX, HALF-DUPLEX, AND FULL-
DUPLEX TRANSMISSION
 Full-Duplex:
 Allows transmission in two directions simultaneously:

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 It is analogous to a voice telephone conversation in which a
participant can speak even if they are able to hear
background music at the other end.
 It is usually implemented over one channel through the
use of two frequencies:
 One frequency for the transmit mode (TX) and
 Another for the receive mode (RX).

 For this implementation modulation techniques are

used.
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SIMPLEX, HALF-DUPLEX, AND FULL-
DUPLEX TRANSMISSION
 Half-Duplex: The mechanism involves a shared
transmission medium:

CSC123: Data Communications

 The shared medium can be used for communication in each
direction.
 But the communication cannot proceed simultaneously.
 It is analogous to using walkie-talkies where only one side
can transmit at a time.
 An additional mechanism is needed at each end of a
half-duplex communication that coordinates
transmission:
 To insure that only one side transmits at a given time.
47
SIMPLEX, HALF-DUPLEX, AND FULL-
DUPLEX TRANSMISSION

CSC123: Data Communications

48
DTE-DCE INTERFACE
 There are usually four basic functional units involved in the
communication of data: a Data Terminating Equipment (DTE) and
Data Circuit-terminating Equipment (DCE) on both ends of

CSC123: Data Communications

transmission
 The DTE generates the data and pass them to a DCE.
 The DCE converts the signal to a format appropriate to the
transmission medium
 When the signal arrives at the receiving end, this process is
reversed

49
DCE AND DTE EQUIPMENT
 Terms Data Communications Equipment (DCE) and
Data Terminal Equipment (DTE) were originally created
by American Telegraph and Telephony (AT&T).

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 To distinguish between the communications equipment
owned by the phone company and the terminal equipment
owned by a subscriber.
 The terminology persists: If a business leases a data
circuit from a phone company:
 The phone company installs DCE equipment at the business.
 The business purchases DTE equipment that attaches to the
phone company’s equipment.
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DCE AND DTE EQUIPMENT
 From an academic point of view, the concept behind the DCE-DTE
distinction is not ownership of the equipment
 Instead, it lies in the ability to define an arbitrary interface for a

CSC123: Data Communications

user.
 If the underlying network uses synchronous transmission
 The DCE equipment can provide either a synchronous or
isochronous interface to the user’s equipment
 Several standards exist that specify a possible interface between
DCE and DTE:
 The RS-232 standard and the RS-449 standard proposed as a
replacement can each be used
 In addition, a standard known as X.21 is also available

51
DATA TERMINAL EQUIPMENT (DTE)
 DTE includes any unit that functions either as a source
of or as a destination for binary digital data

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 It can be a terminal, microcomputer, printer, fax
machine and etc.

Fax

52
DATA CIRCUIT-TERMINATING
EQUIPMENT (DCE)
 DCE includes any functional unit that transmits or
receives data in the form of an analog or digital signal
through a network

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 Commonly used DCEs include modems, hubs, switches,
routers, etc.

Modem

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DTE-DCE INTERFACE STANDARD
 Many standards have been developed to define the
connection between a DTE and a DCE.

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 Each standard provides a model for the mechanical,
electrical, and functional characteristics of the
connection.
 The most active organizations defining the interface
standard are the Electronic Industries Association (EIA)
and the International Telecommunication Union-
Telecommunication Standards Committee (ITU-T)

54
DTE-DCE INTERFACE STANDARD
(CONT.)
 The EIA standards are called EIA-232, EIA-422, EIA-
449, and so on.

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 The ITU-T standards are called the V series and the X
series.

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RS-232
 Originally issued in 1962 as the RS-232 standard (recommended
standard).
 Short for recommended standard-232.

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 Approved by the Electronic Industries Association (EIA) for
connecting serial devices.
 In 1987, the EIA released a new version with the name to EIA-232-
D.
 Defined not only the type of connectors to be used but also the
specific cable and plugs and the functionality of each pin.
 In 1991, the EIA teamed up with Telecommunications Industry
association (TIA) and issued yet another version that goes by
EIA/TIA-232-E.
 But still commonly called RS-232. 56
NEWER STANDARDS
 While EIA-232 remains the most common standard for
serial communication, the EIA has developed successors
called RS-422 and RS-423.

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 These newer standards are “backward compatible” so
that devices adhering to the old standard (RS-232) can
be used in a new RS-422 port.

57
RS-232 ASYNCHRONOUS CHARACTER
TRANSMISSION STANDARD
 EIA standard specifies the details, such as
 Physical connection size (e.g max cable length of 50 feet).

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 Electrical details (range between -15v +15v)
 The line coding being used.
 It can be configured to control the exact number of bits per
second.
 It can be configured to send 7-bit or 8-bit characters.
 Voltage varies at different stages
 When a start bit, eight bits of a character, and a stop bit are
sent.

58
RS-232 ASYNCHRONOUS CHARACTER
TRANSMISSION

CSC123: Data Communications

59
EIA-232 MECHANICAL SPECIFICATION
 The EIA-232 defines the interface as a 25-wire cable with a male
and a female DB-25 pin connector attached to either end.
 The length of the cable may not exceed 15 meters.

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 A DB-25 connector is a plug with 25 pins, each of which is
attached to a single wire with a specific function.
 However, fewer are actually used in current practice
 Another implementation of EIA-232 uses a 9-wire cable with a
male and a female DB-9 pin connector attached to either end
 9-pin connector is more commonly found in PCs but it covers
signals for asynchronous serial communication only.
 Male connector is used on DTE and female connector is used on
DCE
60
EIA-232 ELECTRICAL SPECIFICATION
 EIA-232 states that all data must be transmitted as logical 1s and 0s
(called mark and space) using NRZ-L encoding.
 EIA-232 defines 2 distinct ranges, one for positive voltages and one

CSC123: Data Communications

for negative with:
 0 defined as a positive voltage and
 1 defined as a negative voltage
 To be recognized as data, the amplitude of a signal must fall
between 3 and 15 volts or between -3 and -15 volts.
 EIA-232 allows for a maximum bit rate of 20 kbps, although in
practice this often is exceeded.

61
EIA-232 ELECTRICAL SPECIFICATION
 The reason to do that is because EIA-232 makes it
unlikely that degradation of a signal by noise will affect
its recognizability

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62
CONTROL AND TIMING
 Only 4 wires out of the 25 available in an EIA-232
interface are used for data functions

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 The remaining 21 are reserved for functions like control,
timing, grounding, and testing
 Any of the other functions is considered ON if it
transmits a voltage of at least +3 and OFF if it transmits
a voltage with a value less than -3 volts

63
EIA-232 FUNCTIONAL SPECIFICATION

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DB-25 Implementation

64
DB-9 Implementation
FUNCTIONING OF EIA-232 IN SYNCHRONOUS
FULL-DUPLEX TRANSMISSION

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65
NULL MODEM
 A null modem is used to
connect two DTEs.

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 It fools the DTEs at either
end into believing that they
have DCEs and a network
between them

66
UNIVERSAL SERIAL BUS (USB): THE
NEW STANDARD IN TOWN
 A representative peripheral interface.
 The development of serial port standards was important

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in the development of computers.
 Peripheral device developers knew that if they adhered to the
standards, users could add their device to the computer with
little trouble.
 Over the last few years USB ports and standards have
taken over.
 USB provides a serial bus standard for connecting
devices, usually to a computer, but it also is in use on
other devices such as set-top boxes, game consoles and
PDAs. 67
DIFFERENT TYPES OF RS-232 CABLES

CSC123: Data Communications

68
FIREWIRE
 Also called IEEE-1394.
 Used for digital cameras, camcorders, and scanners.

CSC123: Data Communications

 Bi-directional communication.
 Developed by Apple Computers.
 Requires a special adapter card.

69
 COMPARISON
Interface Format Number of Length Speed Typical Use
Devices (maximum, (maximum,
(maximum) feet) bits/sec.)

CSC123: Data Communications

USB Asynchronous 127 16 (or up to 1.5M, 12M, Mouse,
serial 96 ft. with 5 480M keyboard, disk
hubs) drive, modem,
audio
RS-232 Asynchronous 2 50-100 20k (115k Modem, mouse,
(EIA/TIA-232) serial with some instrumentation
hardware)
Parallel Printer Parallel 2 (8 with 10–30 8M Printers,
Port daisy-chain scanners, disk
support) drives

70
HIGH DEFINITION MULTIMEDIA
INTERFACE (HDMI) CONNECTOR
 HDMI is a connector and cable capable of transmitting
high-quality and high-bandwidth streams of audio and
video between devices.

CSC123: Data Communications

 The HDMI technology is used with devices such as an
HDTV, Projector, DVD player, or Blu-ray player.

71
 CSC123: Data Communications
72
DCE AND DTE EQUIPMENT