Chapter 5: Dynamic Behavior of First-Order and Second-Order Processes
The general first-order transfer function is given by
where K is the steady-state gain and τ is the time constant. The transfer function
was useful in describing the dynamics of the blending system in Section 4.4.
Now we investigate some particular forms of input U(s), deriving expressions
for the response, y(t).
5.2.1 Step Response
For a step input of magnitude M, U(s) = M/s, and Eq. 5-14 becomes
Using Table 3.1, the time-domain response is
The plot of this equation in Fig. 5.3 shows that a first-order process does not
respond instantaneously to a sudden change in its input. In fact, after a time
interval equal to the time constant (t = τ), the process response is still only 63.2%
complete. Theoretically, the process output never reaches the new steady-state
value except as t → ∞; it does approximate the final steady-state value when t ≈
5τ, as shown in Table 5.1.
EXAMPLE 5.1
A stirred-tank heating system is used to preheat a reactant containing a suspended
solid catalyst at a constant flow rate of 1000 kg/h. The volume in the tank is 2 , and
the density and specific heat of the suspended mixture are, respectively, 900 kg/
and 1 cal/g ∘C. The process initially is operating with inlet and outlet temperatures
of 100 and 130 ∘C, respectively. The steady-state energy input is 3 × cal/h. The
transfer function is
The following questions concerning process operations are posed:
(a) What are the values of K and τ?
(b) If the heater input is suddenly increased by +30%, how long will it take for
the tank temperature to achieve 99% of the final temperature change?
(c) If the inlet temperature is increased suddenly from 100 to 120 ∘C, how long
will it take before the outlet temperature changes from 130 to 135 ∘C?
SOLUTION
(a) Using Eq. 5-17, the gain and time constants can be determined
(b) Table 5.1 indicates that the time required to attain the 99% response following
a step change of any magnitude in heater input will be 5τ that is, 9 h. The steady-
state change in temperature due to a change of +30% in Q (9 × cal/h) can be
calculated from the Final Value Theorem, Eq. 3-53:
Note that the calculated outlet temperature change as a result of the input change;
hence, the outlet temperature at the final steady state is 130 ∘C + 9 ∘C = 139 ∘C.
However, use of the Final Value Theorem is an unnecessary formality when a
transfer function is written in the standard form with gain and time constant. The
input change need only be multiplied by the steady-state gain to obtain the
ultimate change in the process output, assuming that the final value does in fact
exist and is finite.
5.2.2 Ramp Response
We now evaluate the response of a first-order system to a ramp input, U(s) = a/
of Eq. 5-8. Performing a partial fraction expansion yields
5.2.3 Sinusoidal Response
As a final example of the response of first-order processes, consider a
sinusoidal input (t) = A sin ωt, with
5.3 RESPONSE OF INTEGRATING PROCESSES
In Section 2.4 we briefly considered a liquid-level system with a pump attached to the
outflow line. Assuming that the outflow rate can be set at any time by adjusting the speed of
the pump, Eq. 2-54 becomes
hence the term, integrating process. Integrating processes do not
have a steady-state gain in the usual sense. For such a process
operating at steady state, any positive step change in (increase in
above ) will cause the tank level h(t) to increase linearly with time
in proportion to the difference, (t) − q(t), while a positive step
change in q will cause the tank level to decrease linearly. Thus, no
new steady state will be attained, unless the tank overflows or
empties. In contrast, a tank with an exit line valve, rather than a
pump, will reach a steady state when the outflow rate becomes
equal to the inflow rate. This process is described by a first-order
transfer function rather than an integrator (cf. Example 4.8).
EXAMPLE 5.3
A vented cylindrical tank is used for storage between a tank car unloading
facility and a continuous reactor that uses the tank car contents as feedstock (Fig.
5.5). The reactor feed exits the storage tank at a constant flow rate of 0.02 /s.
During some periods of operation, feedstock is simultaneously transferred from
the tank car to the feed tank and from the tank to the reactor. The operators have
to be particularly careful not to let the feed tank overflow or empty. The feed
tank is 5 high (distance to the vent) and has an internal cross-sectional area of 4 .
Suppose that after a long period of operation, the storage tank level is 2 at the
time the tank car empties. How long can the reactor be operated before the feed
tank is depleted?
(b) Another tank car is moved into place and connected to the tank, while flow
continues into the reactor at 0.02 /s. If flow is introduced into the feed tank just
as the tank level reaches 1 , how long can the transfer pump from the tank car be
operated? Assume that it pumps at a constant rate of 0.1 /s when switched on.
SOLUTION
(a) For this system, there is no unique steady-state level corresponding to a particular
value of input and output flow rate. Suppose the initial level is h = 2 m and the constant
flow rate from the feed pump to the reactor, = 0.02 /s, is the basis for defining deviation
variables for , , and . Then
Inversion to the time domain yields h(t) = 1 + 0.02t. Thus, the transfer pump can be operated
for 200 s until h(t) = 5 m, when the tank would overflow. Note that this time (as well as the time
to empty the tank in (a)) can be calculated without using Laplace transforms, simply by using
the constant rate of inflow (or outflow) and the tank volume.
