Data Link Layer
Position of the data-link layer
Data link layer duties
LLC and MAC sublayers
IEEE standards for LANs
Error Detection
and
Correction
Note:
Data can be corrupted during
transmission. For reliable
communication, errors must be
detected and corrected.
10.1 Types of Error
Single-Bit Error
Burst Error
Note:
In a single-bit error, only one bit in the
data unit has changed.
10.1 Single-bit error
Note:
A burst error means that 2 or more
bits in the data unit have changed.
10.2 Burst error of length 5
10.2 Detection
Redundancy
Parity Check
Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)
Checksum
Note:
Error detection uses the concept of
redundancy, which means adding
extra bits for detecting errors at the
destination.
10.3 Redundancy
10.4 Detection methods
10.5 Even-parity concept
Note:
In parity check, a parity bit is added to
every data unit so that the total
number of 1s is even
(or odd for odd-parity).
Vertical Redundancy Check (VRC)
Append a single bit at the end of data block
such that the number of ones is even
Even Parity (odd parity is similar)
0110011 01100110
0110001 01100011
VRC is also known as Parity Check
Performance:
Detects all odd-number errors in a data block
Example 1
Suppose the sender wants to send the word world. In
ASCII the five characters are coded as
1110111 1101111 1110010 1101100 1100100
The following shows the actual bits sent
11101110 11011110 11100100 11011000 11001001
Example 2
Now suppose the word world in Example 1 is received by
the receiver without being corrupted in transmission.
11101110 11011110 11100100 11011000
11001001
The receiver counts the 1s in each character and comes up
with even numbers (6, 6, 4, 4, 4). The data are accepted.
Example 3
Now suppose the word world in Example 1 is corrupted
during transmission.
11111110 11011110 11101100 11011000
11001001
The receiver counts the 1s in each character and comes up
with even and odd numbers (7, 6, 5, 4, 4). The receiver
knows that the data are corrupted, discards them, and asks
for retransmission.
Note:
Simple parity check can detect all
single-bit errors. It can detect burst
errors only if the total number of
errors in each data unit is odd.
10.6 Two-dimensional parity
Longitudinal Redundancy Check
(LRC)
Organize data into a table and create a parity
for each column
11100111 11011101 00111001 10101001
11100111
11011101
00111001
10101001
10101010
11100111 11011101 00111001 10101001 10101010
Original Data LRC
Example 4
Suppose the following block is sent:
10101001 00111001 11011101 11100111
10101010
However, it is hit by a burst noise of length 8, and some
bits are corrupted.
10100011 10001001 11011101 11100111
10101010
When the receiver checks the parity bits, some of the bits
do not follow the even-parity rule and the whole block is
Note:
In two-dimensional parity check, a
block of bits is divided into rows and a
redundant row of bits is added to the
whole block.
Cyclic Redundancy Check
Powerful error detection scheme
Rather than addition, binary division is
used Finite Algebra Theory (Galois
Fields)
Can be easily implemented with small
amount of hardware
Shift registers
XOR (for addition and subtraction)
10.7 CRC generator and checker
Let us assume k message bits and
n bits of redundancy
xxxxxxxxxx yyyy
Block of length k+n
k bits n bits
Associate bits with coefficients of a
polynomial
1 0 1 1 0 1 1
1x6+0x5+1x4+1x3+0x2+1x+1
= x6+x4+x3+x+1
10.8 Binary division in a CRC generator
10.9 Binary division in CRC checker
10.10 A polynomial
10.11 A polynomial representing a divisor
Table 10.1 Standard polynomials
Name Polynomial Application
CRC-8 x 8 + x2 + x + 1 ATM header
CRC-10 x10 + x9 + x5 + x4 + x 2 + 1 ATM AAL
ITU-16 x16 + x12 + x5 + 1 HDLC
x32 + x26 + x23 + x22 + x16 + x12 + x11 + x10
ITU-32 LANs
+ x8 + x7 + x5 + x4 + x2 + x + 1
Example 5
It is obvious that we cannot choose x (binary 10) or x2 + x
(binary 110) as the polynomial because both are divisible
by x. However, we can choose x + 1 (binary 11) because
it is not divisible by x, but is divisible by x + 1. We can
also choose x2 + 1 (binary 101) because it is divisible by
x + 1 (binary division).
Example 6
The CRC-12
x12 + x11 + x3 + x + 1
which has a degree of 12, will detect all burst errors
affecting an odd number of bits, will detect all burst
errors with a length less than or equal to 12, and will
detect, 99.97 percent of the time, burst errors with a
length of 12 or more.
Properties of CRC
Example:
CRC-12 = x12+x11+x3+x2+x+1
CRC-16 = x16+x15+x2+1
CRC-CCITT = x16+x12+x5+1
CRC-16 and CRC-CCITT catch all
Single and double errors
Odd number of bit errors
Bursts of length 16 or less
99.997% of 17-bit error bursts
99.998% of 18-bit and longer error bursts
10.12 Checksum
10.13 Data unit and checksum
Note:
The sender follows these steps:
•The unit is divided into k sections, each of n bits.
•All sections are added using one’s complement to get the sum.
•The sum is complemented and becomes the checksum.
•The checksum is sent with the data.
Note:
The receiver follows these steps:
•The unit is divided into k sections, each of n bits.
•All sections are added using one’s complement to get the sum.
•The sum is complemented.
•If the result is zero, the data are accepted: otherwise, rejected.
Example 7
Suppose the following block of 16 bits is to be sent using a
checksum of 8 bits.
10101001 00111001
The numbers are added using one’s complement
10101001
00111001
------------
Sum 11100010
Checksum 00011101
The pattern sent is 10101001 00111001 00011101
Example 8
Now suppose the receiver receives the pattern sent in Example 7
and there is no error.
10101001 00111001 00011101
When the receiver adds the three sections, it will get all 1s, which,
after complementing, is all 0s and shows that there is no error.
10101001
00111001
00011101
Sum 11111111
Complement 00000000 means that the pattern is OK.
Example 9
Now suppose there is a burst error of length 5 that affects 4 bits.
10101111 11111001 00011101
When the receiver adds the three sections, it gets
10101111
11111001
00011101
Partial Sum 1 11000101
Carry 1
Sum 11000110
Complement 00111001 the pattern is corrupted.
10.3 Correction
Retransmission
Forward Error Correction
Burst Error Correction
Data and redundancy bits
Number of Number of Total
data bits redundancy bits bits
m r m+r
1 2 3
2 3 5
3 3 6
4 3 7
5 4 9
6 4 10
7 4 11
2r >= m+r+1
10.14 Positions of redundancy bits in Hamming code
10.15 Redundancy bits calculation
10.16 Example of redundancy bit calculation
10.17 Error detection using Hamming code
10.18 Burst error correction example
