Unit -3 Error Detection correction and Wireless communication

Error: A condition when the receiver’s information does not match with the sender’s
information. During transmission, digital signals suffer from noise that can introduce errors in
the binary bits travelling from sender to receiver. That means a 0 bit may change to 1 or a 1 bit
may change to 0.

Redundancy We need to send some extra bits with our data to detect or correct the errors.
(These redundant bits are added by the sender and removed by receiver. Error control
mechanism may involve two possible ways:

1. Error detection: We will check if any error has occurred or not. We are not interested in
the number of errors.

2. Error correction: We have to check exact number of bits that are corrupted and their
location in the message.

Types Of Errors

Errors can be classified into two categories

Single-Bit Error: The only one bit of a given data unit is changed from 1 to 0 or from 0 to 1.

In the above figure, the message which is sent is corrupted as single-bit, i.e., 0 bit is changed
to 1. Single-Bit Error does not appear more likely in Serial Data Transmission. For example,
Sender sends the data at 10 Mbps, this means that the bit lasts only for 1 ?s and for a single-bit
error to occurred, a noise must be more than 1 ?s. Single-Bit Error mainly occurs in Parallel
Data Transmission. For example, if eight wires are used to send the eight bits of a byte, if one
of the wire is noisy, then single-bit is corrupted per byte.

Burst Error:

The two or more bits are changed from 0 to 1 or from 1 to 0 is known as Burst Error.

The Burst Error is determined from the first corrupted bit to the last corrupted bit.

Error Detecting Techniques:

The most popular Error Detecting Techniques are:

o Single parity check

o Two-dimensional parity check
o Checksum
o Cyclic redundancy check

Single Parity Check

o single Parity checking is the simple mechanism and inexpensive to detect the errors.
o In this technique, a redundant bit is also known as a parity bit which is appended at the
end of the data unit so that the number of 1s becomes even. Therefore, the total number
of transmitted bits would be 9 bits.
 o If the number of 1s bits is odd, then parity bit 1 is appended and if the number of 1s bits
is even, then parity bit 0 is appended at the end of the data unit.
o At the receiving end, the parity bit is calculated from the received data bits and
compared with the received parity bit.
o This technique generates the total number of 1s even, so it is known as even-parity
checking.

Parity Check Example:

Consider the data unit to be transmitted is 1001001 and even parity is used. Then,

• Total number of 1’s in the data unit is counted.

• Total number of 1’s in the data unit = 3.

• Clearly, even parity is used and total number of 1’s is odd.

• So, parity bit = 1 is added to the data unit to make total number of 1’s even.

• Then, the code word 10010011 is transmitted to the receiver.

Drawbacks Of Single Parity Checking:

o It can only detect single-bit errors which are very rare.
o If two bits are interchanged, then it cannot detect the errors.
Two-Dimensional Parity Check/Longitudinal Redundancy Check(LRC):

o Performance can be improved by using Two-Dimensional Parity Check which

organizes the data in the form of a table.
o Parity check bits are computed for each row, which is equivalent to the single-parity
check.
o In Two-Dimensional Parity check, a block of bits is divided into rows, and the
redundant row of bits is added to the whole block.
o At the receiving end, the parity bits are compared with the parity bits computed from
the received data.

Drawbacks Of 2D Parity Check

o if two bits in one data unit are corrupted and two bits exactly the same position in
another data unit are also corrupted, then 2D Parity checker will not be able to detect
the error.
o This technique cannot be used to detect the 4-bit errors or more in some cases.

Checksum

A Checksum is an error detection technique based on the concept of redundancy.

It is divided into two parts:

Checksum Generator

A Checksum is generated at the sending side. Checksum generator subdivides the data into
equal segments of n bits each, and all these segments are added together by using one's
complement arithmetic. The sum is complemented and appended to the original data, known
as checksum field. The extended data is transmitted across the network.

Checksum Checker

A Checksum is verified at the receiving side. The receiver subdivides the incoming data into
equal segments of n bits each, and all these segments are added together, and then this sum is
complemented. If the complement of the sum is zero, then the data is accepted otherwise data
is rejected.

Example:
Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC):

CRC is a redundancy error technique used to determine the error.

Following are the steps used in CRC for error detection:

o In CRC technique, a string of n 0s is appended to the data unit, and this n number is less than
the number of bits in a predetermined number, known as division which is n+1 bits.

o Secondly, the newly extended data is divided by a divisor using a process is known as binary
division. The remainder generated from this division is known as CRC remainder.

o Thirdly, the CRC remainder replaces the appended 0s at the end of the original data. This
newly generated unit is sent to the receiver.

o The receiver receives the data followed by the CRC remainder. The receiver will treat this
whole unit as a single unit, and it is divided by the same divisor that was used to find the CRC
remainder.

If the resultant of this division is zero which means that it has no error, and the data is accepted.

If the resultant of this division is not zero which means that the data consists of an error.
Therefore, the data is discarded.

Let's understand this concept through an example:

Suppose the original data is 11100 and divisor is 1001. CRC Generator o A CRC generator
uses a modulo-2 division.
Firstly, three zeroes are appended at the end of the data as the length of the divisor is 4 and we
know that the length of the string 0s to be appended is always one less than the length of the
divisor.

o Now, the string becomes 11100000, and the resultant string is divided by the divisor 1001.

o The remainder generated from the binary division is known as CRC remainder. The
generated value of the CRC remainder is 111.

o CRC remainder replaces the appended string of 0s at the end of the data unit, and the final
string would be 11100111 which is sent across the network.

CRC Checker

o The functionality of the CRC checker is similar to the CRC generator.

o When the string 11100111 is received at the receiving end, then CRC checker performs the
modulo-2 division.

o A string is divided by the same divisor, i.e., 1001.

o In this case, CRC checker generates the remainder of zero. Therefore, the data is accepted
Error Correction Technique:

Hamming Code:

Wireless Communication

IEEE Standards:

IEEE 802 an Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) standard set that covers
the physical and data link layers of the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model. It defines
standards and protocols for local area networks (WLAN), metropolitan area networks (MAN)
and wireless networks.

A set of network standards developed by the IEEE they include:

IEEE 802.1: Standards related to network management.

IEEE 802.2: General standard for the data link layer in the OSI Reference Model. The IEEE
divides this layer into two sublayers -- the logical link control (LLC) layer and the media access
control (MAC) layer.

IEEE 802.3: Defines the MAC layer for bus networks that use CSMA/CD. This is the basis of
the Ethernet standard.

EEE 802.4: Defines the MAC layer for bus networks that use a token passing mechanism
(token bus networks).

IEEE 802.5: Defines the MAC layer for token-ring networks.

IEEE 802.6: Standard for Metropolitan Area Networks (MANs).

IEEE 802.11: Wireless Network Standards, Wireless Local area network.

Wireless Local Area Network(WLAN)/ Wifi/ 802.11

• WLAN stands for Wireless Local Area Network.

• The performance of WLAN is high compared to other wireless networks.
• the coverage of WLAN is within a campus or building or that tech park. It is used in
the mobile propagation of wired networks.
• The standards of WLAN are HiperLAN, Wi-Fi, and IEEE 802.11.
 • the offers service to the desktop laptop, mobile application, and all the devices that
work on the Internet.

802.11 Architecture:

The 802.11architecture defines two types of services:

1. Basic services set (BSS)

2. Extended Service Set (ESS)

1. Basic Services Set (BSS):

• The basic services set contain stationary or mobile wireless stations and a central base station
called access point (AP).

• The use of access point is optional.

• If the access point is not present, it is known as stand-alone network. Such a BSS cannot send
data to other BSSs. This type of architecture is known as adhoc architecture.

• The BSS in which an access point is present is known as an infrastructure network.

2. Extend Service Set (ESS):

An extended service set is created by joining two or more basic service sets (BSS) having
access points (APs).

These extended networks are created by joining the access points of basic services sets through
a wired LAN known as distribution system.

There are two types of stations in ESS:

(i) Mobile stations: These are normal stations inside a BSS.

(ii) Stationary stations: These are AP stations that are part of a wired LAN.
Advantages of WLAN
1. Installation speed and simplicity.
2. Installation flexibility.
3. Reduced cost of ownership.
4. Reliability.

Disadvantages of WLAN
1. Installation speed and simplicity.
2. Installation flexibility.
3. Reduced cost of ownership.
4. Reliability.

Bluetooth:
• Bluetooth is universal for short-range wireless voice and data communication. It is a
Wireless Personal Area Network (WPAN) technology and is used for exchanging data
over smaller distances.
• This technology was invented by Ericson in 1994. It operates in the unlicensed,
industrial, scientific, and medical (ISM) band from 2.4 GHz to 2.485 GHz.
• Maximum devices that can be connected at the same time are 7. Bluetooth ranges up to
10 meters. It provides data rates up to 1 Mbps or 3 Mbps depending upon the version.
 • A Bluetooth network is called a piconet and a collection of interconnected piconets is
called scatternet. Bluetooth is Wireless.
Bluetooth Architecture
Bluetooth architecture defines two types of networks:
1. Piconet 2. Scatternet
1. Piconet:
• Piconet is a Bluetooth network that consists of one primary (master) node and seven
active secondary (slave) nodes.
• Thus, piconet can have up to eight active nodes (1 master and 7 slaves) or stations
within the distance of 10 meters.
• There can be only one primary or master station in each piconet.
The communication between the primary and the secondary can be one-to-one or one-
to-many/.
communication is between master and a slave. Salve-slave communication is not
possible.

Scatternet:
•Scattemet is formed by combining various piconets.
• A slave in one piconet can act as a master or primary in other piconet.
• Such a station or node can receive messages from the master in the first piconet and
deliver the message to its slaves in other piconet where it is acting as master. This node
is also called bridge slave.
• Thus a station can be a member of two piconets.
• A station cannot be a master in two piconets
Advantage:

• It is a low-cost and easy-to-use device.

• It can also penetrate through walls.

• It creates an Ad-hoc connection immediately without any wires.

• It is used for voice and data transfer.

Disadvantages:

• It can be hacked and hence, less secure.

• It has a slow data transfer rate: of 3 Mbps.

• It has a small range: 10 meters.

• Bluetooth communication does not support routing.

• The issues of handoffs have not been addressed.

Applications:

• It can be used in laptops, and in wireless PCs, printers.

• It can be used in wireless headsets, wireless PANs, and LANs.

• It can connect a digital camera wirelessly to mobile phone.

Mobile generation:

1G,2G,3G,4,G,5G: Simply, the "G" stands for "GENERATION".

When connected to internet, the speed of internet depends on the signal strength that has been
shown in alphabets like 2G, 3G, 4G etc. right next to the signal bar on home screen of mobile
phone. Each Generation is defined as a set of telephone network standards, which detail the
technological implementation of particular mobile phone system.

1G (1st Generation):

• First-time calling was introduced in mobile systems.

• It used analog signals.

• The coverage area was small.

• No roaming support between various operators.

• Low sound quality.

• Speed:- 2.4 kbps.

2G (2nd Generation) :

• Shifted from analog to digital.

• It supported voice and SMS both.

• Supported all 4 sectors of the wireless industry namely Digital cellular, Mobile Data, PCS,
WLAN,

• Moderate mobile data service.

• 2G WLAN provided a high data rate & large area coverage.

• Speed:- 64 kbps.

2.5G came after 2G which used the concept of GPRS. Streaming was also introduced and mail
services too. Then came 2.75G or EDGE which was faster in providing services than 2.5G. It
gave faster internet speed up to 128kbps and also used edge connection.

3G (3rd Generation):

• The Internet system was improved.

• Better system and capacity.

• Offers high-speed wireless internet.

• The connection used was UMTS and WCMA.

• Speed:- 2mbps.

4G (4th Generation):

• IP-based protocols.

• LTE (Long term evaluation) was mainly for the internet.

• Vo-LTE (Voice over LTE) is for both voice and the internet.

• Freedom and flexibility to select any desired service with reasonable QoS.

• High usability.

• Supports multimedia service at a low transmission cost.

• HD Quality Streaming.

• Speed:-100mbps.

5G (5th Generation):

• It is yet to come in many countries but here are some notable points about 5G. • Higher
data rates.

• Connectivity will be more fast and more secure,

• Data Latency will be reduced to a great level.

• Massive network capacity.

• It is 30 times faster than 4G.

• There would be more flexibility in the network.