4-1

Chapter

Learning: Theories and

4
Program Design

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Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
1. Discuss the five types of learner outcomes.
2. Explain the implications of learning theory for
instructional design.
3. Incorporate adult learning theory into the design
of a training program.
4. Describe how learners receive, process, store,
retrieve, and act upon information.
5. Be able to choose and prepare a training site.

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Objectives (continued)
6. Discuss the internal conditions (within the
learner) and external conditions (learning
environment) necessary for the trainee to learn
each type of capability.
7. Explain the four components of program design:
 Course parameters
 Objectives
 Lesson overview
 Detailed lesson plan
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Introduction
 Training at the Culinary Institute of America
(CIA) is designed to teach aspiring chefs how to
prepare food (knowledge) as well as develop the
necessary motor skills (e.g., chopping onions).
onions)
 These are types of learning outcomes.
 CIA’s training programs illustrate several
conditions necessary for learning to occur:
 Opportunities to learn by observing an expert
 Practicing

 Receiving feedback
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Introduction (continued)
 As CIA training illustrates, for learning to occur it
is important to identify what is to be learned.
 Identify the learning outcomes.
 Understanding learning outcomes is crucial
because they influence the characteristics of the
training environment that are necessary for
learning to occur.
 The design of the training program is also

important for learning to occur.

Copyright © 2002 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
 4-6

What Is Learning?

Learning is a relatively permanent

change in human capabilities that
is not a result of growth
processes.
These capabilities are related to
specific learning outcomes.

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Learning Outcomes
 Verbal information
 Includes names or labels, facts, and bodies of
knowledge
 Includes specialized knowledge employees need

in their jobs
 Intellectual skills
 Include concepts and rules
 These are critical to solve problems, serve

customers, and create products

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Learning Outcomes (continued)

 Motor skills
 Include coordination of physical movements
 Attitudes
 Combination of beliefs and feeling that pre-
dispose a person to behave a certain way
 Important work-related attitudes include job
satisfaction, commitment to the organization,
and job involvement
 Cognitive strategies
 Regulate the process of learning
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 4-9

Learning Theories
Reinforcement Theory Social Learning Theory

Goal Theories

Need Theories

Expectancy Theory
Information Processing Adult Learning Theory
Theory
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 4 - 10

Reinforcement Theory
 Emphasizes that people are motivated to
perform or avoid certain behaviors because
of past outcomes that have resulted from
those behaviors.
 Positive reinforcement
 Negative Reinforcement

 Extinction

 Punishment

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Reinforcement Theory (continued)

 From a training perspective, it suggests that for
learners to acquire knowledge, change behavior, or
modify skills, the trainer needs to identify what
outcomes the learner finds most positive )and
negative).
 Trainers then need to link these outcomes to

learners acquiring knowledge, skills, or changing

behaviors.

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Schedules of Reinforcement
 Ratio Schedules
 Fixed-ratio schedule
 Continuous reinforcement

 Variable-ratio schedule

 Interval Schedules
 Fixed-interval schedule
 Variable-interval schedule

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 4 - 13

Social Learning Theory

 Emphasizes that people learn by observing
other persons (models) whom they believe are
credible and knowledgeable.
 Recognizes that behavior that is reinforced or

rewarded tends to be repeated.

 The models’ behavior or skill that is rewarded

is adopted by the observer.

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 4 - 14

Social Learning Theory (continued)

 Learning new skills or behavior comes from:
 directlyexperiencing the consequences of using
behavior or skills, or
 the process of of observing others and seeing
the consequences of their behavior
 Learning is also influenced by a person’s self-
efficacy.
 Self-efficacy
is a person’s judgment about
whether she can successfully learn knowledge
and skills.
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 4 - 15

Processes of Social Learning Theory

Match
Motor Motivational
Attention Retention Modeled
Reproduction Processes Performance

• Model Stimuli • Coding • Physical • Reinforcement

Capability
• Trainee • Organization
Characteristics • Accuracy
• Rehearsal
• Feedback

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 4 - 16

Goal Theories
 Goal setting theory assumes behavior results from
a person’s conscious goals and intentions.
 Goals influence behavior by directing energy and

attention, sustaining effort over time, and

motivating the person to develop strategies for
goal attainment.
 Research suggests that specific challenging goals

have been shown to lead to high performance only

if people are committed to the goal.
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 4 - 17

Goal Theories (continued)

 Goal setting theory is used in training program
design.
 It suggests that learning can be facilitated by

providing trainees with specific challenging

goals and objectives.
 The influence of goal setting theory can be

seen in the development of training lesson

plans.

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Need Theories
 Need theories help explain the value that a person
places on certain outcomes.
 Need theories suggest that to motivate learning:

 trainers should identify trainees’ needs, and

 communicate how training program content relates

to fulfilling these needs

 If the basic needs of trainees are not met, they are
unlikely to be motivated to learn.

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 4 - 19

Expectancy Theory
 Expectancy theory suggests that a person’s
behavior is based on three factors:
 Expectancy

 Instrumentality

 Valance

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 4 - 20

Expectancy Theory (continued)

 Expectancy theory suggests that learning is
most likely to occur when employees believe:
 They can learn the content of the program
(expectancy)
 Learning is linked to outcomes such as better

job performance, a salary increase, or peer

recognition (instrumentality)
 Employees value these outcomes

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 4 - 21

Expectancy Theory of Motivation

Expectancy Instrumentality Valance

X X = Effort
Effort Performance Performance Outcome Value of Outcome

Does Trainee Have Ability Does Trainee Believe Are Outcomes Related to
to Learn? Training Outcomes Training Valued?
Promised Will Be
Does Trainee Believe He
Delivered?
Can Learn?

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 4 - 22

Adult Learning Theory

 Adult learning theory was developed out of a need for
a specific theory of how adults learn.
 It is based on several assumptions:
 Adults have the need to know why they are learning
something.
 Adults have a need to be self-directed.

 Adults bring more work-related experiences into the learning

situation.
 Adults enter into a learning experience with a problem-
centered approach to learning.
 Adults are motivated to learn by both extrinsic and intrinsic
motivators.
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 4 - 23

Implications of Adult Learning Theory for

Training:
Design Issue Implications
Self – concept Mutual planning and collaboration in instruction

Experience Use learner experience as basis for examples and applications

Readiness Develop instruction based on learner’s interests and competencies

Time perspective Immediate application of content

Orientation to learning Problem – centered instead of subject – centered

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 4 - 24

Information Processing Theory

 These theories give more emphasis to the internal
processes that occur when training content is
learned and retained.
 This information can come from another person or

the learner’s own observation of the results of his

action.
 If the evaluation of the response is positive, this

provides reinforcement that the behavior is

desirable to be stored in long-term memory for use
in similar situations.
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 4 - 25

The Learning Process

 This material asks three questions:
 What are the physical and mental processes
involved in learning?
 How does learning occur?

 Do trainees have different learning styles?

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 4 - 26

The Learning Process:

Mental and Physical Processes
Expectancy
Gratifying Perception

LEARNING Working Storage

Generalizing

Semantic
Retrieval Encoding
Long –Term
Storage

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 4 - 27

The Learning Process:

Learning Styles
 Diverger  Converger
 Concrete experience  Abstract

 Reflective observation conceptualization

 Active experimentation
 Assimilator
 Abstract
 Accommodator
conceptualization  Concrete experience
 Reflective observation  Active experimentation

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 4 - 28

Implications of the Learning Process for

Instruction:
 Employees need to know why they should
learn.
 Employees need meaningful training

content.
 Employees need opportunities to practice.

 Employees need to commit training content

to memory.

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 4 - 29

Implications of the Learning Process for

Instruction: (continued)
 Employees need feedback.
 Employees learn through:

 Observation

 Experience

 Interacting with others

 Employees need the training program to be
properly coordinated and arranged.

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 4 - 30

Training Objectives
 Employees learn best when they understand the
objective of the training program.
 The objective refers to to the purpose and expected
outcome of training activities.
 Training objectives based on the training needs
analysis help employees understand why they
need the training.
 Objectives are useful for identifying the types of
training outcomes that should be measured to
evaluate a training program’s effectiveness.
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 4 - 31

A training objective has three

components:
A statement of what the employee is
expected to do (performance or outcome).
 A statement of the quality or level of

performance that is acceptable (criterion).

 A statement of the conditions under which

the trainee is expected to perform the

desired outcome (conditions).

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 4 - 32

Training administration involves:

 Communicating courses and programs to
employees
 Enrolling employees in courses and programs

 Preparing and processing any pre-training

materials such as readings or tests

 Preparing materials that will be used in instruction

 Arranging for the training facility and room

 Testing equipment that will be used in instruction

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 4 - 33

Training administration involves:

(continued)
 Having backup equipment should equipment fail
 Providing support during instruction

 Distributing evaluation materials

 Facilitating communications between trainer and

trainees during and after training

 Recording course completion in the trainees’

records or personnel files

Copyright © 2002 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

 4 - 34

How Trainers Can Make the Training Site

and Instruction Conducive to Learning:
Creating A Learning
Setting
Preparation

Classroom
Management

Engaging Trainees
Managing Group
Dynamics

Copyright © 2002 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

 4 - 35

Program Design
Ob ters
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Copyright © 2002 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.