Geotechnical Engineering A

5
Shear Strength

Contents
1. Shear Strength of Soils
2. Test Conditions
3. Measurement of Shear Strength
Parameters

Shear Box Test

Triaxial Test

4. Shear Vane Test (Insitu Test)

5. Vertical Stress

1. Shear Strength of Soils

Shear strength

N
Shea

a ce
f
r
u
s
r

F
N

Relative
displacement
of soil mass

Define as the maximum shear

stress that can be applied to that
soil in any direction
When this maximum has been
reached the soils yields & is
regarded to have failed
Shear strength is derived from
the frictional resistance F
generated from inter-particle
forces , N
The pore water has no shear
strength

Shear strength f at failure is some function of the total stress normal (n) to that plane
f = c + ntan
where c & = experimentally determined constants

Experimentally determined constants c &

Shear Strength of Dry Sand

f = c + ntan
shear stress
(fkN/m2

c= 0
ntan

normal stress (nkN/m2

frictional soil
no cohesion

f= ntan

Experimentally determined constants c &

Undrained Shear Strength of Saturate Soils

In terms of total stress, any saturated soil, which is not allowed to drain,
will exhibit no, or very little frictional resistance e.g. clays
f = c + ntan
c

shear stress
(fkN/m2

ntan = 0
= 0 undrained strength envelope

cohesive soil
no friction

c
normal stress (nkN/m2

f= c

Experiment has shown that this general expression is correct for a wide
range of soils for a limited range of stresses

f = c + n tan
Coulombs equation (1773)

General Case
Sand + Clay

shear stress
(fkN/m2

c
normal stress ( kN/m2

stress

Effective Stress

Force
Area

= u
Shear strength of a soil can be expressed in terms of effective stress
f = c + ntan

shear stress
(fkN/m2

c
normal stress ( kN/m2

2. Test Conditions
Values of used in design will normally
have been obtained from laboratory or insitu tests
It is essential that the conditions of the tests are
reported
Undrained = total stresses (u uu
Drained or Undrained with PWP measured =
effective stresses (

Type of test depends on information required e.g.

Undrained test
Foundations built on a
saturated silty clay
bearing capacity required
the soil must be able to take the
load before the PWP has had
time to dissipate
soil will become stronger with
time as PWP dissipate &
effective stress increases
settlement (dissipation of PWP)
will occur which may itself
cause problems
critical stage from a strength
point of view is immediately
after the load is applied

Drained test or Undrained

with measurement of PWP

Long term stability of a cut

slope or retaining wall
effective stress parameters
obtained from a drained or
undrained test with the
measurement of PWP

3. Measurement of shear Strength parameters

1) Shear Box Test (BS 1377; Part 7; 1990: 4 &5)

This is the simplest form of laboratory shear strength test and is often referred to as the direct shear
test as it relates the shear stress at failure directly to the normal stress, thus the failure envelope may
be plotted directly from the results.
In the direct shear box the sample is caused to shear along the plane dividing the upper and lower
pieces by applying a horizontal load to the upper piece while the lower piece is held in position. The
load is generally applied via a proving ring, hence the load causing the sample to shear can be read
directly and the shear stress, is the load causing shear divided by the plan area of the box.
The test is repeated several times on different specimens of the same sample using different normal
loads. The results are then be plotted, to give the shear strength envelope, form which a value of
may be obtained.
The apparatus, comprises a square box construction in two separate pieces, an upper piece and a
lower piece. The vertical normal load is applied directly through the upper pressure plate and it is
divided by the plan area of the box to give the normal stress .
The volumetric behavior of the soil can also determine during the test by measuring the amount of
horizontal displacement and vertical displacement using dial gauges.
By using either porous or impervious platens above and below the sample, both drained and
undrained tests may be performed. It is not possible to measure the pore water pressures during the
test. Consequently, the shear box provides a simple method of measuring total stress in clay samples
and the total and effective stress of free draining granular deposits.
The shear strength of samples with a pre-formed shear plane can also be established. This parameter,
which is known as residual shear strength, is of use when assessing the stability of failed slopes.

Shear box

Typical Results from a Shear box Test

Shear Stress (
kN/m2
Shear Stress (
kN/m2
Dense

Medium

(80kN/m2)

(80kN/m2)

f
n=80kN/m

(40kN/m2)

Loose

(40kN/m2)

(20kN/m2)

n=40kN/m

Dense

f
(20kN/m )
2

20

Medium
Loose

Ultimate or
residual shear
strength

n=20kN/m2

Horizontal Displacement (mm)

40

Normal Stress n

80

Volumetric Displacement
Compression
volume decrease

Vertical
Displacement
(mm)

n=20kN/m2
n=40kN/m2
n=80kN/m2

Dilation volume
increase

Horizontal Displacement (mm)

At the maximum shearing resistance (f) = the rate

of maximum volume change (dilation)

A thin rupture zone of

the soil at critical
density is produced

Typical Results
' peak

' ult

Dense well graded SAND or angular GRAVEL

55

35

Medium desne uniform SAND

40

32

Dense slightly clayey SILT

47

32

Sandy silty CLAY

35

30

Shaley CLAY

35

35

Silty CLAY (London Clay)

21

15

Material

Example 1 the following results were recorded during a shear box test on a cohesive soil:
Normal load (N)
Shear load at failure (N)

73
109

191
139

309
170

427
197

545
227

If the specimen size was 60mm x 60mm, plot the failure envelope and determine the
apparent cohesion and angle of shearing resistance.
Area of shear box = 60 x 60 = 3600mm2
stress

or 3600/(1000x1000) = 3.6x10-3m2

Load
Area

normal stress 'n

Shear stress f

73 103
3.6 10

109 103
3.6 10

Normal stress (kN/m )

2

Shear stress at failure (kN/m )

= 20.3 kN/m2

= 30.3 kN/m2

20.3

53.1

85.8

118.6

151.4

30.3

38.6

47.2

54.7

63.1

Normal stress (kN/m )

2

Shear stress at failure (kN/m )

Shear stress at failure (kN/m )

20.3

53.1

85.8

118.6

151.4

30.3

38.6

47.2

54.7

63.1

70
60

= 14o

50
40
30
20

C = 25 kN/m2

10
0
0

50

100

150
2

Normal stress (kN/m )

cohesive soil therefore obtain a c value

200

2) Triaxial Compression Test (BS 1377; Part 7; 1990)

The apparatus consists of a cell, which is filled with water under pressure; the
specimen is loaded vertically, via a proving ring to measure load.
Triaxial Test Equipment

Triaxial Test Cell

Test Sample

The vertical load on the specimen is increased until failure occurs, the vertical strain
being recorded at the same time using a dial gauge. The test is repeated on different
specimens from the same soil, using different values of cell pressure.

Stresses on Specimen in Triaxial Cell

Cell Pressure

Deviator Stress =P/A

1= 3+P/A

1 = major principal stress

3 = minor principal stress

Therefore, P/A = ( 1- 3) =Deviator stress

The deviator stress is the load on the specimen, P, divided by the cross sectional area of the specimen.
However, as the sample is compressed during the test, the cross sectional area will increase. Therefore,
in calculating the deviator stress an allowance for the change in area must be considered.
For the calculation of deviator stress, it is assumed that the volume of the specimen remains
constant and that the sample will deform as a cylinder,

Strain
where

X
100%
Lo

P
1 3

Deviator stress

P = vertical load, which is measured by a proving ring (kN)

A = Area calculated using the following method

Volume (Vo ) Ao Lo AL A Lo X )

or

Vo
Lo X

or

Ao
1

Deviator Stress
(kN/m2)
Brittle failure
(shear)

Plastic failure
(barrelling)

failure at 20% strain

Strain () %

Having tested three specimens from the same sample at three different cell pressures,
the shear strength parameters may be assessed using a construction known as a Mohr
circle diagram. This diagram may be explained by way of the following example.
Example 2; The stress/strain graphs for three specimens taken from a single sample of
silty clay are shown below. Calculate the shear strength parameters for the clay.
Deviator Stress
(kN/m2)

672
Sample

573

A
B
C

425

Deviator Stress
(1-3)=P/A
425
573
672

Cell Pressure (3)

100
200
300

Major principal
Stress 1
425+100 = 525
573+200 = 773
672+300 = 972

1
Strain () %

Sample Cell Pressure (3)

A
100
B
200
C
300

Plot Mohr Circle Diagram

P
3
A

Mohr Circle Diagram

Sample
A
B
C

Deviator Stress
(1-3)=P/A
425
573
672

Cell Pressure (3)

100
200
300

Major principal
Stress 1
425+100 = 525
573+200 = 773
672+300 = 972

Shear Stress
( kN/m2

400

Sample C
Sample B

300
200

cu = 130 100
kN/m2
0

Sample A

3=100 3=200 3=300 1=525 1=773

0
200
400
600
800

1-3
Diameter of Circle

1=972
1000

Cell Pressure kN/m2

1 3
Radius of Circle =

Undrained Shear Strength of Saturate Soils

In terms of total stress, any saturated soil, which is not allowed to drain,
will exhibit no, or very little frictional resistance e.g. clays

Shear stress
(fkN/m2

= cu
= 0 undrained strength envelope

cu
normal stress (nkN/m2

The triaxial compression test are commonly undertaken on undrained specimens,

where a rubber membrane seals the specimen within the cell. These result are in
terms of total stress. However, it is possible to measure the pore water pressures
during the shearing stage, allowing the effective stress parameters to be recorded.
Another method of assessing the effective stress of a sample is to apply the load at a
very slow rate and allow the sample to drain.
Undrained

Consolidated undrained with pore

water pressure measurement

Consolidated drained

24hrs
The various triaxial compression tests area described in detail in the following parts of BS 1377, 1990;
Test Type
Part No
Para.
1 Undrained triaxial compression test
7
8&9
2 Consolidated undrained triaxail compression test with pore water pressure measurement
8
7
3 Consolidated drained triaxail compression test
8
8

 Undrained test:
Drainage is prevented throughout the test, so that no dissipation of pore pressure is
possible.
Parameters obtained: cu and u
Typical site problem: immediate bearing capacity of foundations in saturated clay.

Consolidated undrained test:

test
Free drainage is allowed for (usually) 24 hours under cell pressure only to allow the
specimen to consolidate or to become saturated. Drainage is then prevented and porepressure readings taken during the application of axial load (i.e. shearing stage).
Parameters obtained: c and (i.e. referred to effective stress) and ccu and cu (i.e.
referred to total stress)
Typical site problem: sudden change in load, after an initial stable period, e.g. rapid
drawdown of water behind a dam; or where effective stress analysis is required, e.g.
slope stability.

Consolidated - Drained test:

Free drainage is allowed during a consolidation stage and drainage maintained during
the axial loading (which is carried out at a slow rate) so that no increase in pore
pressure occurs.
Parameters obtained: cd and d
Typical site problem: long-term slope stability

4. Shear Vane Test (Insitu Test)

The vane test is a simple insitu test suitable for use on saturated clay at the
bottom of a trialpit or borehole on site: The vane is driven or pushed into the
soil and a measured torque (T) applied to it until it rotates. The failure surface
is the curved surface plus the flat ends of the cylinder of soils whose diameter
and height are that of the vane. The torque required to cause failure in a
saturated clay is:

d2
Torque T c
h d / 3
2
where:
T = Torque
c = Cohesion
d = Diameter
h = height of vane

5. Vertical Stress
GL
depth = d
= unit weight of soil

u = unit weight of water x h

Total vertical stress = Depth x unit weight of soil

v = D x
kN/m2 = m x kN/m3

Effective vertical stress = Total stress porewater pressure

v = v - u
kN/m2 = kN/m2 - kN/m2

Example 3: Determine Total Stress, Pore Water Pressure and Effective

Stress at the centre of the clay layer
Total stress

v (kN/m2) = depth (m) x unit weight of soil (kN/m3)

3m 2.5m

Sand
Unit weight = 18kN/m3
Unit weight = 19.5kN/m3

7m

(2.5x18)+(19.5x0.5)+(2x21.5) = 97.75kN/m2

Clay

water table

PWP
2
(2.5x9.81) = 24.5kN/m
Effective stress

v = v - u
97.75 - 24.5 = 73.2kN/m2

Unit weight = 21.5kN/m3

or Effective stress
(2.5x18)+((19.5-9.81)x0.5)+((21.5-9.81)x2 )
= 73.2kN/m2

Example 4: A layer of saturated clay 4m thick is overlain by sand 5m deep,

the water table being 3m below the surface. The saturated unit weights of
the clay and sand are 19kN/m3 and 20kN/m3 respectively: above the water
table the unit weight of sand is 17kN/m3.
Plot values of total vertical stress and effective vertical stress against depth
v (kN/m2) = depth (m) x unit weight of soil (kN/m3)
ground
level

3m
5m

Sand

3 x 17 = 51 kN/m2

v = v - u
2 x 9.81 = 19.6 kN/m2
(3 x 17) + (2 x 20) = 91 kN/m2
total stress

water
table

6 x 9.81 = 58.8 kN/m2

9m

Clay

91 -19.6 = 71.4 kN/m2

effective stress

167 -58.8 = 108.2 kN/m2

effective stress

(3x17) + (2x20) + (4x19) = 167 kN/m2

total stress