MEMORY

Definition

Memory is essentially the capacity for storing

and retrieving information
Memory conceptualization
As types

Explicit memory

Implicit memory

As stages

Sensory memory

Short term memory

Long term memory

As processes

Encoding

Storage

Retrieval
Types of memory
Explicit memory
Explicit memory refers to knowledge or
experiences that can be consciously
remembered.

 Episodic memory refers to the firsthand

experiences that we have had

 Semantic memory refers to our knowledge

of facts and concepts about the world
Measuring explicit memory

A recall memory test is a measure of explicit
memory that involves bringing from memory
information that has previously been remembered.


A recognition memory test is, a measure of
explicit memory that involves determining whether
information has been seen or learned before.


Measures of relearning (or savings) assess how
much more quickly information is processed or
learned when it is studied again after it has already
been learned but then forgotten.
Implicit memory
Implicit memory refers to the influence of experience on
behavior, even if the individual is not aware of those
influences.


Procedural memory refers to our often unexplainable
knowledge of how to do things


Classical conditioning effects refers to associate neutral
stimuli with another stimuli to create a naturally occurring
response.


And lastly priming refers to changes in behavior as a result
of experiences that have happened frequently or recently
Word fragment test

The Word Fragment Test is a psychological experiment used to

_ib_a_y
measure implicit memory — the type of memory that influence

 our behavior without conscious awareness.

 _h_s__i_n

 _o_k
Read the following sentence carefully

“He got his materials from the shelves,

checked them out, and then left the
building.”
 Stages of memory
short term and long term

Information begins in sensory memory,

moves to short-term memory, and eventually
moves to long-term memory.
Sensory memory

Sensory memory refers to the brief storage of
sensory information


Visual sensory memory is known as iconic memory.


The purpose of sensory memory is to give the
brain some time to process the incoming
sensations, and to allow us to see the world as
an unbroken stream of events rather than as
individual pieces. The first stage that receives information from the senses (sight, sound, touch,
etc.).

It briefly holds this information for a few seconds.

If attention is not given, the information is lost.

⚙️ Example: You see a flash of lightning but forget it instantly if you don’t focus
on it.
Measuring iconic memory
Short term memory
 Short-term memory (STM) is the place
where small amounts of information can be
temporarily kept for more than a few seconds
but usually for less than one minute

 The processes that we use to make sense

of, modify, interpret, and store
information in STM are known
as working memory.
Measure of working memory

Is 10 × 2 − 5 = 15? (Answer YES OR NO) Then
remember “S”

Is 12 ÷ 6 − 2 = 1? (Answer YES OR NO) Then
remember “R”Is 10 × 2 = 5? (Answer YES OR
NO) Then remember “P”

Is 8 ÷ 2 − 1 = 1? (Answer YES OR NO) Then
remember “T”Is 6 × 2 − 1 = 8? (Answer YES
OR NO) Then remember “U”

Is 2 × 3 − 3 = 0? (Answer YES OR NO) Then
remember “Q”
Maintenance rehearsal
 019 Maintenance rehearsal is the process of repeating information over and over to
keep it active in short-term memory for a longer time.

 3586 It helps prevent the information from fading away but does not always lead to
long-term storage.

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Chunking
 Chunking is the process of organizing
information into smaller groupings
(chunks), thereby increasing the number
of items that can be held in STM.

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MTVCNNABCFOX
 Long term memory

If information makes it past short term-

memory it may enter long-term memory
(LTM), memory storage that can hold
information for days, months, and years.
Information processing model of
memory
Three stages of the memory
process

 Encoding - the initial learning of

information

 Storage - maintaining information over time

 Retrieval - the ability to access information

when you need it
 How we encode
 Visual encoding (imagery)
🎨 1. Visual Encoding (Imagery)

Encoding information by creating mental pictures or

images

 Acoustic
🔊 encoding (sounds)
2. Acoustic Encoding (Sound)

Encoding information through sound, especially the sound of

words.

 Semantic encoding (meaning)

• We can recall information we can relate to
ourselves (self reference effect)
Encoding information by understanding its meaning rather than memorizing words.

Example:
Instead of just memorizing the word “photosynthesis,” you remember what it means — “plants making food using sunlight.”
When you understand something, your brain encodes it deeply.
 Principles of Encoding

 Selective - we attend to some events in our

environment and we ignore others.

 Prolific - we are always encoding the events

of our lives—attending to the world, trying
to understand it
2. Prolific Encoding

1. Selective Encoding The brain encodes information deeply and richly by connecting it with multip

The brain filters information and focuses only on what is cues or contexts.
important or meaningful.
Explanation:
Explanation:
We are constantly surrounded by tons of information,
The more ways you process or relate information (meaning, emotion, sound,
but our brain cannot process everything.
example), the stronger the memory trace becomes.
So, it selectively encodes what we pay attention to.
Example:
Example:
While studying in a noisy café, you ignore background
chatter and focus only on your textbook.
Your brain selectively encodes the study material — not
Visualize waves 🌊
When learning the word “ocean,” you:

Hear the sound of water 🔊💭

the surrounding noise. Feel emotions of calmness
Distinctiveness
Information that is unusual or stands out is more easily remembered.

Explanation:
The brain tends to notice and remember things that are different or surprising compared to the rest.

Example:
In a list of normal words — cat, dog, apple, chair, banana, unicorn —
you’ll likely remember “unicorn” because it’s distinctive.

💡 Tip:
Make information unique using color-coding, humor, or creative visualization.

Let’s say you’re preparing for your Memory chapter test.

Selective Encoding:
→ You decide to focus on the main headings and definitions of types of memory, instead of trying to memorize ev
single paragraph.

Prolific Encoding:
→ You explain the concept out loud, draw a simple chart, and relate it to your own life (e.g., remembering your bre
= episodic memory).

Distinctiveness:
→ You highlight key terms in bright colors or use funny mnemonics like “Silly Elephants Jump Like Lions” (Sensory,
Episodic, etc.) to make it stand out.
 Storage

We encode each of our experiences within the
structures of the nervous system, making new
impressions in the process—and each of those
impressions involves changes in the brain.


Experiences leave memory traces or engrams


Events (occurrences in our environment)create
engrams through a process of consolidation:
the neural changes that occur after learning to
create the memory trace of an experience
 Retrieval

The key process in memory is

retrieval

which is

“The process of accessing

stored information”
Why might forgetting occur in the first
place?

 Retrieval failure theory

 Interference theory

 Motivated forgetting

 Decay theory
Retrieval failure theory
 Forgetting occurs due to an incapacity to
utilize internal or external cues to retrieve
previously stored information

 Tip of the tongue

This theory explains that we sometimes forget information not because it has
disappeared
from memory, but because we cannot access it at that moment. The memory
is stored in
the brain, but the right cue to retrieve it is missing
 Retrieval failure theory

Doesn’t seem to apply to procedural memory

ypes of Retrieval Cues
Type of Cue Description Example
Context-Dependent Cues External environment cues (place, smell, sound,
setting) help recall. You remember something better when you’re in the same
room or environment where you learned it.
State-Dependent Cues Internal cues (mood, emotions, physical state) help
recall. You studied while feeling relaxed — you’ll recall better when you’re
relaxed again, not anxious.
Semantic or Meaning-Based Cues Words or ideas connected by meaning help
recall. Hearing the word “school” helps you remember related words like
“teacher” or “exam.”
 Interference theory
Sometimes forgetting occurs due to the
presence of other information.

 Pro active interference – old affecting new

 Retroactive interference – new affecting old
1. Proactive Interference (Old → Affects
New)
⏩ 2. Retroactive Interference (New → Affects Old)

New memories interfere with recalling older information.

Old memories interfere with learning or
recalling new information.
Example:
You just learned your new class schedule, and now you can’t remember last
Example:
semester’s schedule anymore.
You recently got a new phone number, but
The new information has overwritten or disrupted the old one.
you keep typing your old number by
mistake.
Your old memory (old number) is blocking
🧩 Tip to remember:
Retro = Recent interferes with Recall of old.
your recall of the new one.

🧩 Tip to remember:
📘 Another example:
You’ve changed your phone password, and now you can’t remember the old
Pro = Past interferes with Present.

📘
one because the new one dominates your memory.

Another example:
You learned French last year, and now
you’re learning Spanish — but you keep
accidentally using French words
Motivated forgetting
Repression Theory
Motivated Forgetting happens when a person forgets information on

purpose — either consciously or unconsciously — because

remembering it would cause pain, anxiety, or discomfort.

In
Motivated forgetting
We tend to block our negative, painful or
threatening memories to the point that they
are forgotten

RUSC
Repression – Unconscious;
Suppression - Conscious
Decay theory
Over time our memories biologically
degenerate

Fading of the physical memory trace

Does not seem to apply much to episodic

memory