MEMORY

CHAPTER 13
 What is Memory?

Memory is the process by

which we encode, store and
retrieve information.
Information Processing Models of Memory

Keyboard Disk Monitor

(Encoding) (Storage) (Retrieval)

Sequential Process
 Information Processing Models of Memory
Psychologists believe that the process of memory involves
three stages.
Transforming incoming
Encoding information into a form that
can be stored in memory.

Holding information in
Memory Storage memory until it is needed.

Locating information in
Retrieval memory and ‘getting it out’ so
it can be used.
 Three-stage Model of Memory
R. Atkinson and R. Shiffrin (1968) proposed that our memories are not
just stored in one place but actually memory consists of several ‘stores’.

Rehearsal

Incoming
Information Transfer
Sensory Short-term Long-term
Attention
Memory Memory Retrieval Memory

Information loss Information loss Information loss

through decay through through
decay/displacement decay/interference
These three storage systems of memory differ in
their function, capacity & the length of time they
retain the information.
(Atkinson & Shiffrin 1968, 1971)
 1-Sensory memory
The initial, momentary storage of information lasting only an
instant.
Capacity : large (can hold many items at once)
Duration : very brief
Sensory memory can be divided into two types:
 Iconic memory: a momentary sensory memory of visual
information (a brief memory for an image or icon) lasts less
than a second.
Echoic memory: a momentary sensory memory of auditory
information (a brief memory for a sound or echo) lasts 3-4
seconds.
2-Short-Term Memory (working memory)
When we pay attention to sensory memory, it enters into short-
term memory.
Function: conscious processing of information.
Capacity: limited (holds 7+/- 2 items) Many experiments have
shown that 7 plus or minus 2 items of information seems to be the
‘magic number’ in short term memory.
Duration: lasts for 15 -25 sec.
Chunk: a chunk is a meaningful grouping of stimuli that can be that
can be stored as a unit in short-term memory.
Rehearsal: The repetition of information that has entered short-
term memory.
 Effortful processing strategies

Some effective effortful processing strategies

include:
chunking
Mnemonics
Hierarchies
Distributed practice session
 Chunking

A meaningful group of stimuli that can

be stored as a unit in short-term
memory.
 Chunking I

Organizing items into a familiar,

manageable unit. Try to remember the
numbers below.

1-9-4-7-1-9-6-5-1-9-7-1-1-9-9-8
 Chunking I

Organizing items into a familiar, manageable unit.

Try to remember the numbers below.
1947- 1965- 1971- 1998
If you are well versed with Pakistan’s history,
chunk the numbers together and see if you can
recall them better.
 Mnemonics
Are memory devices that help learners recall larger
pieces of information, especially in the form of lists like
characteristics, steps, stages, parts, phases, etc.
 Hierarchy
Complex information broken down into broad concepts and
further subdivided into categories and subcategories.
 3-Long-Term Memory

Material that makes its way from STM to LTM enter a

storehouse of almost an unlimited capacity.
Long-Term memory stores information on a relatively
permanent basis, although it might be difficult to retrieve.
Function: Organizes and stores information.
Capacity: unlimited
Duration: lifetime
 Long-Term memory can be
subdivided into several different
types.
Declarative memory (Explicit memory) : is memory for
factual formation: names, faces, dates and facts.

I. Semantic memory: is memory for general knowledge

and facts about the world, as well as for the rules of
logic that are used to deduce other facts.
II. Episodic memory: is memory for the biographical
details for our individual lives
Nondeclarative memory (Implicit memory) :
Memories people are not consciously aware of, but
that can affect their subsequent performance and
behavior.
I. Procedural memory: refers to memory for skills
and habits. Information regarding “how to do
things” is stored in procedural memory.
 Recalling Long-Term Memory

Tip-of-tongue phenomenon: The in ability to recall

information that one realizes one knows-a result of the
difficulty of retrieving information from long-term
memory.
Retrieval Cues: A retrieval cue is a stimulus that allows us
to recall more easily information that is located in the
long-term memory. e. g a word, an emotion, a sound;
whatever the specific cue, a memory will suddenly come
to mind when the retrieval cue is present.
 Recall Vs
Recognition
you must retrieve the you must identify the
information from your target from possible targets
memory
multiple-choice tests
fill-in-the blank or essay
tests
 More on Measuring Memory
Relearning:
Learning again something that was previously learned
◦ Used to measure memory of prior learning

Savings score:
Amount of time saved when relearning information
 Measuring Memory Concluded
Explicit memory:
Past experiences that are consciously brought to mind

Implicit memory: A memory not known to exist; memory that

is unconsciously retrieved

Priming: When cues are used to activate hidden memories

Redintegration
Memories that are reconstructed or expanded by
starting with one memory and then following
chains of association to related memories
Suppose you are shown a series of
photographs that depict various
scenes related to having lunch at
the campus commons. One of the
photos shows an unexpected event
(the spilled soda).
If you were to see all of the photos
again a few days later, it’s likely that
you would “remember” seeing the
image on the right (next slide), even
though it wasn’t in the original group
of photos.
When we see an unexplained
event, we are very likely to think
about its cause. Later, it is easy to
mistake these thoughts for an
actual memory

Fig. 8-4a, p. 258

Fig. 8-4b, p. 258
 Flashbulb memories

Flashbulb memories are memories of a specific,

important, or surprising event that are so vivid, they
are like a snapshot of the event.
Forgetting: Why Memory Fails
 Forgetting: Why Memory Fails
There are two major processes account for memory
failure:
I. Decay : is the loss of information through nonuse.
II. Interference: information in memory displaces or
blocks out other information, preventing its recall.
 Interference Theory
Proactive interference:
old information blocks out new information.

Study Take
Study
Spanish
French Spanish test

Spanish test performance impaired by study of

French.
 Interference Theory
Retroactive interference: new information
blocks out old information.

Study Study Take

French Spanish French test

French test performance impaired by study of Spanish.

Memory dysfunctions/disorders
Alzheimer’s disease: (progressive loss of memory )
Symptoms:
In initial stages, simple forgetfulness of things appears like
appointments & birthdays.
As the disease progresses, memory loss becomes more profound,
and even the simplest tasks -such as how to dial a telephone- are
forgotten. Ultimately, ability to speak or comprehend language
can be lost, physical deterioration sets in, leading to death.
 Amnesia
Amnesia: refers to an inability to recall information
that is stored in memory. (loss of memory). The
causes of amnesia may be organic or functional.
Causes:
Organic causes of amnesia may include brain
damage through injury, or the use of specific drugs
- usually sedative drugs.
Functional causes of amnesia are psychological
factors, such as defense mechanisms.
 Types of amnesia

Anterograde amnesia - the patient cannot remember new information.

Things that happened recently, information that should be stored into short-
term memory disappear. This is usually caused by brain trauma (brain damage
from a blow to the head, for example). However, a patient with anterograde
amnesia can remember data and events which happened before the injury.

Retrograde amnesia - often thought of as the opposite of anterograde

amnesia. The patient cannot remember events that occurred before his/her
trauma, but remembers things that happened after it normally.
Korsakoff’s syndrome:
A type of memory loss caused by long-term alcohol
abuse. Although, many of their intellectual abilities might
be intact, its suffers display a strange array of symptoms,
including hallucinations and repetition of same story over
and over again.
 Improving your memory
A number of strategies can be used to help us
develop better memories.
Practice & rehearse
Reduce interference
Counteract the serial position effect
 study repeatedly (distributed practice)
Taking notes
Organization cues (outline material from the
textbook)
Use mnemonic devices
Ways to Improve Memory (Cont)
Selection:
Selecting most important concepts to memorize
Organization:
Organizing difficult items into chunks; a type of
reordering
Ways to Improve Memory Concluded

Whole Learning: Studying an entire package of

information at once, like a poem
Part Learning: Studying subparts of a larger body of
information (like text chapters)
Progressive Part Learning: Breaking learning task into a
series of short sections
Serial Position Effect: Making most errors while
remembering the middle of the list
Overlearning: Studying is continued beyond bare mastery
 Retrieval Strategies
Knowledge of Results:
Feedback allowing you to check your progress
Recitation: Summarizing aloud while you are learning
Rehearsal: Reviewing information mentally (silently)
How to improve memory
Test your own knowledge
Active retrieval cues
Explain it to a friend
Sleep more
Don’t believes claims about drugs that improve
memory.