Class 12 Physics Project
o study various factors on which the internal resistance and EMF of a cell depen
Submitted by: _______________________ (Name & Roll No.)
Class: 12 • Subject: Physics • Academic Year: 2025-2026
Contents
1. Aim
2. Apparatus
3. Theory
4. Factors affecting EMF and internal resistance
5. Experimental methods
6. Procedure
7. Observations (sample)
8. Calculations (sample)
9. Graphical method
10. Sources of error & Precautions
11. Result & Conclusion
12. References
1. Aim
To study the various factors on which the electromotive force (EMF) and internal resistance of a cell de
2. Apparatus
• Cell(s) (e.g., dry cell or Daniel cell)
• Voltmeter (suitable range)
• Ammeter (suitable range)
• Rheostat or a set of resistors
• Connecting wires and key/switch
• Potentiometer (optional)
• Thermometer (if studying temperature)
• Concentration solutions (if studying concentration)
• Stopwatch, ruler, notebook
3. Theory
Electromotive force (EMF) of a cell, denoted E, is the energy supplied by the cell per unit charge when no
When current I flows through a cell with internal resistance r and external load R, the terminal voltage V a
By varying the external load and measuring V and I, plotting V vs I gives a straight line with intercept E (a
4. Factors affecting EMF and Internal Resistance
Type of electrodes: Different electrode materials have different electrode potentials, affecting EMF.
Concentration of electrolyte: According to Nernst equation, concentration changes the cell potential.
Temperature: EMF typically changes with temperature; internal resistance can increase with temperature
State of electrolyte (aging, impurities): As electrolyte degrades or becomes dilute, internal resistance may
Physical condition of cell: Corrosion, internal damage, or partial depletion alters both EMF and r.
Current draw / rate of discharge: Large currents can cause polarization and increased internal resistance
5. Experimental Methods
A. Voltmeter-Ammeter Method: Connect cell, ammeter in series, voltmeter across the cell, and vary exter
B. Potentiometer Method (more accurate): Use potentiometer to measure E directly (open-circuit) and the
C. Varying factors: Repeat measurements while changing one factor (e.g., electrolyte concentration, tem
6. Procedure (example: effect of concentration)
1. Prepare electrolyte solutions of different concentrations (e.g., 0.1 M, 0.5 M, 1.0 M, 1.5 M) while ke
2. Measure the open-circuit EMF E of the cell (using potentiometer or high-range voltmeter) for each
3. Connect a known external resistor (e.g., R = 2.0 Ω) across the cell, note terminal voltage V and ca
4. Compute internal resistance r = (E - V)/I for each concentration.
5. Repeat for different loads to get multiple (V, I) pairs and plot V vs I; slope = -r and intercept = E.
7. Observations (Sample Data)
Experiment: Effect of electrolyte concentration on EMF and internal resistance. External load R = 2.0
[Link] Concentration (M) E (V) V (V) I (A) Internal r (Ω)
1 0.10 1.44 1.32 0.660 0.18
2 0.50 1.47 1.38 0.690 0.13
3 1.00 1.50 1.44 0.720 0.08
4 1.50 1.52 1.47 0.735 0.07
8. Sample Calculations
For concentration 0.10 M: E = 1.44 V, Vt = 1.32 V, R = 2.00 Ω
I = Vt / R = 1.32 / 2.00 = 0.660 A
Internal resistance r = (E - Vt) / I = (1.44 - 1.32) / 0.660 = 0.12 / 0.660 = 0.182 Ω (approx)
9. Graphical Method
Plot terminal voltage V (y-axis) against current I (x-axis) for the measured pairs. A straight line fit gives y-
10. Sources of Error & Precautions
• Meter inaccuracies: Use meters with appropriate ranges and calibrate if possible.
• Contact resistance: Ensure good connections and clean terminals.
• Temperature variations: Keep temperature constant or measure its effect separately.
• Parallax error while reading analog meters: Take readings carefully.
• Polarization of electrodes at high currents: Allow rest periods between runs.
11. Result & Conclusion
Sample conclusion (based on sample data): As electrolyte concentration increased from 0.10 M to 1.50 M
12. References
1. NCERT Physics Textbook, Class 12 (Electrochemistry chapter)
2. Practical Physics Manuals / School laboratory manual
3. Any standard physics reference on electrochemistry and cell potentials
