Term Paper Report

ON

BEVERAGES

Submitted to partial fulfilment of the

Requirements for the award of the degree

Of
BACHELOR OF SCIENCE
IN
BOTANY

SUBMITTED BY-
ParshaviVerma
Roll No.-211111
[Link] 5th Semester
Under the guidance of
[Link] Singh

ISABELLA THOBURN COLLEGE

1
 LUCKNOW

TABLE OF CONTENTS
S. No. Particulars Page
No.
1 Acknowledgement 6
2 Contents 2
3 List of Tables 5
4 Abstract 7
Chapter 1 Introduction 8
1.1 Health Importance of Beverages 8
1.2 Natural and Synthetic Beverages 8
1.3 Carbonated and Non-Carbonated Beverages 9
1.4 Hot and Cold Beverages 9
1.5 Stimulating and Non-Stimulating Beverages 9
1.6 Other Beverages 10
1.7 Non- Alcoholic Beverages 11
Chapter 2 Tea 13

2.1 History 13
2.2 Origin and Distribution 13
2.3 Botanical Characteristics 14
2.4 Enzyme Action 14
2.5 Chemistry of Tea Leaves 14
2.6 Cultivation Of Tea 16
2.7 Black Tea 17
2.8 Green Tea 19
2.9 Oolong Tea 20
2.10 Qualities Of Tea 21
2.11 Varieties of Tea 22
2.12 Important improved varieties of Tea 22
2.13 Tea in India 22
2.14 Uses 23
2.15 Tea Products 24
2.16 Instant Tea 26
Chapter 3 Coffee 27
3.1 Green Coffee 27
3.2 Classification of Green Coffee Beans 27
3.3 Comparison of [Link] and [Link] 27
3.4 Origin and Distribution 28
3.5 Organic Coffee 29
2
3.6 Green Bean Processing 29
3.7 Botanical Characteristics 29
3.8 Coffee Cultivation 30
3.9 Processing Of Coffee 31
3.10 Varieties of Coffee 32
3.11 Qualities of Coffee 32
3.12 Uses 33
3.13 Coffee in India 33
3.14 Monsooned Coffee 34
3.15 Instant Coffee 35
Chapter 4 Cocoa 36
4.1 Origin and Distribution 36
4.2 Botanical Characteristics 36
4.3 Cocoa Cultivation 37
4.4 Processing Of Cocoa 38
4.5 Properties of Cocoa 39
4.6 Other caffeine containing beverages Uses 40
Chapter 5 Fruit Beverages 40
5.1 Ready-To-Serve Beverages 41
5.2 Natural fruit juice 41
5.3 Nectar 42
5.4 Dilutable Beverages 43
5.5 Squashes and Crushes 44
Chapter 6 Alcoholic Beverages 44
6.1 Spirits 45
6.2 Brandy 46
6.3 Gin 47
6.4 Vodka 47
6.5 Wisky 47
6.6 Rum 47
6.7 Cidars 47
6.8 Beers 47
6.9 Liquers 47
6.10 Wine 48
6.11 Distilled Beverages 49
6.12 Rectified spirit 52
6.13 Amount Of Use 53
6.14 Apéritifs and digestifs 53
6.15 Consumption in India 54
Chapter 7 Statistical Data 54
7.1 India’s Consumption 56
7.2 World’s Consumption 57
Chapter 8 References 75

3
 List Of Tables

No. Of Tables Particulars Page No.

Major alcoholic and non-
1 alcoholic beverages
11
consumed throughout the
world.
Composition of
2 unprocessed tea leaf
14
Health Benefits of various
3 types of tea.
21
4 Specific requirements of
Tea by FSSAI
22
Alcoholic beverages
5 belonging to the category
47
of spirit

4
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The work presented in this report would not have been possible
without my close association with many people. I take this
opportunity to extend my sincere gratitude and appreciation to all
those who made this report possible.
A person cannot success without the blessings of God and
support of our loved ones. So, first of all I pay my most sincere and
humble indebtedness to almighty. I am indebted to my parents who
raised and nurtured me, and without their blessings I could not
succeed.
I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my
supervisor [Link] Singh, whose support, help and constant
guidance accompanied me all the way through my bachelor’s
degree. I could not have completed this project without her support,
wisdom, and warm mentorship style.
I would like to express my earnest thanks to the Botany
department for their support and blessings.
For my report, I had referred and deeply analyzed various topics
from different books, magazines and journals, etc. Thus, I thank to
all authors for their thoughtful guidance through the marvellous
bookswhich helped me to complete this report.
I would like to thank my colleagues for their constant support and
every other person who has helped me direct or indirect in both
ways with their valuable suggestion in my report work.

THANK YOU!
5
Abstract-

Beverages whether of plant or animal origin, play an important role in the

diet of people in many parts of the world. They not only provide important
sources of nutrients but have also great potential in maintaining health and
preventing diseases. Lactic acid bacteria and yeasts are the major group of
microorganisms associated with them. The global commercial beverage
market comprises hot drinks, milk drinks, soft drinks (noncarbonated soft
drinks (NCSD) and Carbonated Soft Drinks) and alcoholic drinks. Hot drinks
include tea and coffee. Beverages are an integral part of human diet, starting
from new born. The cycle starts with the infant formulas- highly complex
drink, rich in many key nutrients. As human age and their nutritional
requirements change, product designer keeps pace by developing new and
innovative beverages to meet these needs. Beverages can be defined as “any
fluid which is consumed by drinking”. It consists of diverse group of food
products, usually liquids that include the most essential drink “water” to
wide range of commercially available fluids like fruit beverage, synthetic
drinks, alcoholic beverage, milk, dairy beverages, tea, coffee, chocolate
drinks etc. Despite differences in their properties one common feature that
exists in all beverages is their ability to act as thirst quencher. In simple
words beverages can be defined as “liquid which is essentially designed or
developed for human consumption”. The beverages are rarely consumed for
its food value but it is vital for life. Although their prime role is to fulfil the
human need but these are part of our culture. However there are important
pre-requisite for beverages: -
• All are made from food ingredients
• All are subject to pure food law
• Consumed in enormous quantities – sometimes safer than potable supply

Keywords- Beverages; nutrients; fluid; nutrition; liquid; ingredients;

consumption

6
CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

Beverage is a potable drink other than [Link] word beverage is derived from the
old French word ‘boivre’ that means ‘adrink’. Hence beverages are liquid drinks
intended for human consumption. Beverages are stimulatory in nature and man feels
some pleasure by taking them. Earliest beverage consumed by humans wasprobably
the juice extracted from fruits. With time we came to know aboutvast array of
refreshing and stimulating drinks / beverages to quench our [Link] substances
obtained from plants like cocaine, cannabis, opium, etc. are highly stimulant, whereas
others like tea, coffee, cocoa, etc. are mild stimulant. Now-a-days, beverages are used in
enormous quantity throughout the world and they have become an integral part of the
human diet.
Beverages may be classified into two groups, viz, alcoholic and non-alcoholic beverages.
Alcoholic beverages are depressants, lowering the activity of the brain. There are two
categories of alcoholic beverages: fermented beverages are those in which alcohol is
formed by the fermentation of sugars and distilled beverages which are obtained by
successive distillation of fermented [Link] and beer are the oldest alcoholic
beverages. Wine is produced by fermentation of fruit juices, mainly grapes and contains
7-16 percent alcohol. Beers are made by fermentation of cereals mainly barley and
contain 3-8 percent alcohol. Its nutritive value is higher due to the presence of sugars,
dextrin, proteins and phosphates. Some other fermented beverages include cider from
apple juice, perry from pear juice, palm wine from juices of palm inflorescence and
chicha from maize kernels.
Distilled beverages include whisky which is obtained from fermented juices of different
fruits and Rum which is made from sugarcane juice or molasses. Gin is prepared by
distillation of fermented malt of barley and [Link]-alcoholic beverages usually contain
alkaloids and are used all over the world for their stimulating and refreshing qualities.
Tea, coffee and cocoa fall in this [Link]-alcoholic beverages have refreshing and
stimulating properties due to the presence of caffeine in small amounts. Caffeine
imparts wakefulness with increased production of digestive juices and has marked
diuretic action.

1.1 Health Importance of Beverages-

Beverages are essential for growth, development as well for carrying out various
physiological processes that are critical for living a healthy life.

7
• In adult individuals70 percent of body weight, 73 percent of lean muscle, 25 percent
of adipose tissues, 22 percent of bone and 80 percent of blood consists of water.
Consumption of beverages help in maintaining the water content in body and prevent
dehydration
• The water assists in digestion, assimilation and excretion of foods. It also helps in
removing the toxic substances produced in body as a result of metabolisms such as
urea, uric acid, ammonia etc. through kidney.

• Water in beverages help in regulating the temperature of body through the process of
sweating.

• Beverages specially the fruit and vegetable-based ones are source of micronutrients
(vitamins and minerals) and anti-oxidants (carotenoids, flavonoids).

1.2 Natural and synthetic beverages-

The natural beverages are prepared from the naturally derived ingredients including
fruit juices or milk or malt, sugar, acid, flavouring and colouring materials. The
examples of this group are fruit-based beverages, malt beverages and dairy beverages.
Synthetic beverages are analogue of natural beverages and may contain ingredients
which are prepared synthetically like flavouring and colouring materials. These are
primarily developed to offer pleasure to consumers at affordable cost. The major group
of synthetic beverages is soft drinks which contain flavoured sugar syrup as base
material that may or may not be carbonated. The high potency sweetener- based
beverages also belong to the category of synthetic beverages as they contain artificial
sweeteners mainly to reduce the calorific value.

1.3 Carbonated and non-carbonated beverages-

Carbonated beverages are the one where carbon dioxide is dissolved in syrup or water.
The presence of carbon dioxide creates bubbles upon release of pressure and fizzing in
the beverage. The carbonated beverages are commonly referred as “Soft Drink”. Cola
or lemonade beverages are typical examples of carbonated beverages. The process of
fermentation also produces carbon dioxide in certain beverages like beer. Carbonation
is done for various reasons. Consumers find the fizzy sensation pleasant, and like the
slightly different taste that dissolved carbonic acid provides. Soda water is another
popular type of carbonated beverage which may also be flavoured. Majority of fruit and
dairy based beverages falls into the category of non-carbonated beverages. The
category also includes hot beverages and alcoholic beverages that do not contain
carbon dioxide.

1.4 Hot and cold beverages-

8
 Another criterion for classifying beverages is the temperature of serving. Certain
beverages are consumed only hot i.e. temperature above 65-700C which are termed as
“Hot beverage” while those served at chilled temperature are called as “cold
beverages”. The examples of hot beverages are tea, coffee, chocolate and milk. However,
iced tea and cold coffee are served chilled. Most of the fruit beverages, dairy drinks,
alcoholic drinks and soft drinks are example of cold drinks. Term “cold drink” is
synonymous to “carbonated drinks” as well.

1.5 Stimulating and non-stimulating beverages-

Consumption of some beverage stimulates the body systems mainly to nervous system
and circulatory system. It is mainly due to the presence of certain chemical compounds
like caffeine in coffee and tea, many phenolic compounds in herbal drinks and ethyl
alcohol in alcoholic beverages. The chemical constituents present in these beverages
influence the physiological processes as follows:-
• Increase in basic metabolic rate (BMR)
• Increase in blood circulation and heart beat
• Stimulation of central nervous system (CNS) and release of neuro transmitter
• Diuretic (increase in frequency of urination)
• Enhancement in secretion of gastric juice

1.6 Other beverages-

There are many other categories of beverages and it includes nomenclature like herbal
drinks, mood drinks, energy drinks and sports drinks. Energy drinks are those
beverages which boost energy and mainly contain sugar and caffeine. In recent past
there has been rapid growth in the demand of energy drinks. These drinks may also
contain variety of stimulants and vitamins. Herbal drinks are prepared by using the
infusion of herbs in water. A wide variety of herbs may be used in preparation of such
drinks. Many herbs like aloe vera, ginseng, shatavari,Arjuna, lemongrass, thyme etc.
may be used for as base material for herbal drinks. Sports beverages are also called as
“electrolyte drinks” are basically designed to replenish the loss of fluid & electrolytes
and provide quick energy during the exercise and sports activity. The mono-
saccharides such as dextrose, glucose syrup are added so that they can be transported
easily into the muscle cells and produce energy apart from sucrose and maltodextrin.
The carbohydrate content of sports beverage varied in the range of 4-8 percent.
Electrolytes are many essential minerals such as chloride, calcium, phosphate,
magnesium, sodium, and potassium.
Electrolytes control osmosis of water between body compartments and help maintain
the acid base balance required for normal cellular activities. There are three types of
sports drinks all of which contain various levels of fluid, electrolytes, and carbohydrate.

9
• Isotonic drinks have fluid, electrolytes and 6-8% carbohydrate. Isotonic drinks
quickly replace fluids lost by sweating and supply a boost of carbohydrate. This kind of
drink is the choice for most athletes especially middle and long distance running or
team sports.

• Hypotonic drinks have fluids, electrolytes and a low level of carbohydrates.

Hypotonic drinks quickly replace flids lost by sweating. This kind of drink is suitable
for athletes who need fluid without the boost of carbohydrates such as gymnasts.

• Hypertonic drinks have high levels of carbohydrates. Hypertonic drinks can be used
to supplement daily carbohydrate intake normally after exercise to top up muscle
glycogenstores. In long distance events high levels of energy are required and
hypertonic drinks can be taken during exercise to meet the energy requirements. If
used during exercise, hypertonic drinks need to be used in conjunction with isotonic
drinks to replace fluids.

1.7Non- Alcoholic Beverages-

Table 1- Major alcoholic and non-alcoholic beverages consumed throughout the world.

Beverage Global Consumption

Non- Alcoholic
Tea 6.3 billion kg
Coffee 10 million tons
Fruit Juice 95,934 million litres
Alcoholic
Beer 189.05 million kilolitres
Wine 234 million hectolitres

The refreshing and stimulating properties of non-alcoholic beverages are due to the
presence of caffeine or other related alkaloids. Caffeine, when taken in small quantities,
imparts mental animation and wakefulness. It stimulates increased production of
digestive juices and has a marked diuretic action. Tea, coffee and cocoa are the three
major non-alcoholic beverages. The first two have little nutritive value, while cocoa is a
good source of energy. Coffee is more stimulating to the brain and cocoa to the kidney,
whereas tea occupies an intermediate position between the two, being a mild stimulant
to most bodily functions.

10
11
CHAPTER 2

TEA

Botanical Name- Camellia Sinensis

Family- Theaceae
Vernacular Names- Chai(Hindi), Thayili(Tamil), Theyaku(Telugu)

2.1 History-

"According to Japanese folklore, the discovery of tea is attributed to an Indian Buddhist

monk Daruma who lived hundreds of years ago. He left India to preach the message of
the Enlightened One—The Lord Buddha—in China. Arriving at Peking, he vowed not to
sleep for nine years till he finished his prayers. But, during his meditation he felt tired
and his eyes closed. Waking up in disgust, he tore off his eyelids and threw them away.
Where the latter fell there sprang up an evergreen bush. Surprised, Daruma plucked the
leaves, boiled them and drank the liquid. Soon, he felt refreshed and was able to
continue his prayers. Daruma eventually left China and went to Japan where he died."

2.2 Origin & Distribution-

The word ‘Chai’ is derived from a Cantonese word ‘Chah’. Tea is the most popular among
non-alcoholic beverages and more than half of the world’s population is addicted to tea.
India or China or perhaps both of these countries are native home of tea. The legendary
Chinese emperor Shen Nung is said to have discovered the stimulatory properties of tea
leaf [Link] ancient records show that tea was grown in China as early as 2700 B.C.
but it was never found to grow there in a truly wild state. In 1823, occurrence of wild
tea plants, Thea assamica in the mountainous regions of Assam and the adjoining areas
was reported and it was suggested that cultivated varieties of tea are derived from this
plant. It is assumed that Chinese travellers carried tea seeds from Assam to China.
However, experimental cultivation of tea began in India between 1818 and 1834 from
seeds reimported from China, although it was growing in her own forests all along. It
has been considered by some that China and Assam teas had separate origins; the large-
leaved Indian varieties probably originated from wild plants near the source of the
Irrawaddy River in Assam or northern Burma, whereas the narrow leaved Chinese
varieties perhaps had a separate origin in China itself. The turks introduced tea from
China to the West in the later part of the 16th century. It was introduced into North
America by the English emigrants. Today, England leads other countries in its imports
and is the greatest tea-drinking nation in the [Link] drinking became a social custom
in China in 5th century AD. Itwas brought to Japan by Buddhist monks in early eighth

12
century. It spread to other Asian countries by the seventeenth century. Since then the
habit of drinking infusions of tea increased throughout the world.
For many years China held its monopoly in cultivation of tea on
commercial scale and was the only exporter of tea. It is now widely cultivated in Ceylon,
India, Indonesia, East Africa, Brazil, Peru, and Argentina. Today, Ceylon and India are the
two largest producers of tea, sharing over 10,000 tea gardens. In India, the principal
tea-growing estates are located in the Brahmaputra and Surma valleys of Assam and
Darjeeling and Jalpaiguri districts of north Bengal. These accounting for over 70% of
India’s total production. The remaining 30% of Indian tea comes from mountain slopes
of the Nilgiris and Annamalais, Kerela, Karnataka, Ranchi, Kangra and Kumaon regions.

2.3 Botanical Characteristics –

Camellia sinensis is an evergreen perennial shrub or a small tree, attaining a height of

9-15 m in natural condition, but under commercial cultivation it is never allowed to
grow beyond 0.7-1.5m. It has simple, elliptic to lanceolate, coriaceous and serrated
leaves. The young leaves are beset with numerous oil glands which impart
characteristic fragrance and aroma. The white or pinkish fragrant flowers are borne in
leaf axils, either singly or in groups of two to four. The fruit is a trilocular capsule with
one brown seed in each [Link] leaves contain numerous oil glands which impart
characteristic fragrance and aroma to leaves. Yellow centered white or pinkish fragrant
flowers are born in leaf axils either singly or in clusters of few and produce a three-
celled woody capsule at maturity. Each compartment of capsule contains a brown seed,
about 1.25 cm in [Link] leaves are glabrous. The under surface of young tender
leaves is densely covered with soft hairs that vanish with age.

2.4 Enzyme action –

Polyphenol oxidase enzyme in tea leaf plays a key role in fermentation. Other enzymes
include -glucosidase, peptidase, chlorophyllase, phosphatase and leucine transaminase.
Theaflavins and Thearubigins are the two groups of polyphenolic compounds unique to
black tea. Theaflavins account for 0.3-1.8% of dry weight of black tea. They are bright
red pigments which gives the liquor the highly sought-after characteristics (i.e.
„brightness‟ and „briskness‟ (keen/sharp flavour)). Thearubigins comprise between 9-
19% of the dry weight of black tea. They are phenolic brown pigments with acidic
properties. Aroma forms during fermentation.

2.5 Chemistry of Tea Leaves-

Table 2- Composition of unprocessed tea leaf

Constituents Percentage
13
Proteins 20
Carbohydrates 30
Lipids 2
Polyphenols 33
Caffeine 5
Vitamins and Minerals 7

14
2.6Cultivation of Tea-

Tea is now widely cultivated in the tropical and temperate regions extending from 40°
N in Russian Trans Caucasia to 33.5o Argentina. India is second largest tea producing
nation with estimated production around 179.01 million kgs reported in July 2021.
The sub-tropical and tropical mountainous regions are suitable for tea cultivation. For
cultivation of tea an annual rainfall of 100-150 cm and temperature of 24-30 degree
Celsius is needed. Excessive dry periods are not suitable for plant growth. It requires
some shade for faster growth. The bushes thrive best in deep, well-drained friable loam
or forest land rich in organic matter.
Tea plants are raised from seeds. Some bushes allowed to grow in tea gardens and
seeds are collected from these bushes. Seeds are first sown in nurseries and they
germinate in about a month. Seedlings are ready for transplantation in about a year.
After transplantation, plants are allowed to grow for four years. When they attain a
height of about 2m, they are pruned to a height of 45-50 cm. The main aim of pruning is
to promote branching. The tea bushes are then regularly pruned to maintain their
proper shape. After pruning, new shoots appear during the rainy season. A certain
initial growth, known as plucking level, is then established above which new leaves are
harvested. Waterlogging is harmful to tea plants. To provide shade to tea bushes
leguminous trees like Albiziaprocera, A. chinensis, Dalbergiaassamica, Derris robusta,
Gliricidiasepium and Erythrinaspp are planted in tea gardens. In addition to shade,

15
these trees supply some of the essential plant nutrients and their roots ventilate the
soil.
Growth of tea bushes is not uniform throughout the year. A period of rapid growth
alternates with a dormant period. The periodic appearance of new leaves is called a
flush. Leaves are plucked with the beginning of active growing phase. In northern India,
leaves are plucked 3-4- times in a year but in winter season (dormant period) plucking
is not done. However, in South India, plucking continues throughout the year, and it is
done at weekly or fortnightly intervals. The first picking is usually made when plants
are about 5 years old. Leaves are usually picked up by women by hand or by scissors.
During picking young tender shoots with the terminal bud and two to five leaves
immediately below it are removed. The young plucked shoots are transferred to a
basket suspended from the waist or back of the plucker. A skilled worker can pluck up
to 50 kg of leaves every day. Tea is tolerant of high levels of aluminum. Aluminum is
also a diagnostic character for determining good tea soil. It is helpful in uptake of
manganese and [Link] quality of tea depends on the age of plant as the
tannin content is leaves are variable with their age. The young leaves with more tannin
make better tea than the older [Link] percentage of tannin in the tea plant is as
follows: bud-25; first leaf-28, second leaf-2, third leaf-‘4, stalk between second leaf and
bud-12, and stalk between second and fourth leaf-6. It is clear from above description
that picking of terminal bud with first and second leaf gives best quality tea.
The terminal buds are the valued in the trade and commonly referred to as golden
tips. The smallest leaf forms orange-pekoe the second leaf pekoe, the third leaf pekoe-
souchong, the fourth leaf souchong and the fifth leaf congou grades of tea. The yield
decreases substantially as the plant becomes 40-50 years old.
The tannins in tea leaves undergo a major change during preparation of black tea as
their concentration is reduced from 28 to 12 per cent. A cup of tea provides 4 calories
without any added ingredients, with the addition of table spoon of milk and a tea spoon
of sugar it becomes 40 calories. Tea also contains few B complex groups of vitamins and
nicotinic acid. Indian teas have larger content of tannin than the Chinese varieties
which are known for their delicacy. Letpet tea is fermented or pickled tea grown mainly
in Myanmar, Thailand and China. It is used as a pickle instead of drink.

2.7 Black Tea-

Processing Of Tea-
There are four commercial categories of tea:
(i) Black or fermented tea
(ii) Green or unfermented tea
(iii) Oolong or semi-fermented tea
(iv) Brick tea

16
Black tea is commercially the most important, and it is produced mostly in India,
Ceylon, Indonesia and East [Link] 80 percent of the tea is processed into black
tea.

Types of Processed Tea-

 Fermented or black tea – They contribute a major proportion of tea consumed in
Western hemisphere. They are produced by full fermentation and roughly
classified as „Plain‟ or „Flavoury‟.
 Plain black tea- The taste characteristics are associated with the phenolic
substances produced during fermentation e.g. Assam tea.
 Flavoury black tea- They are sold on the basis of their aroma characteristics e.g.
Darjeeling tea.
Processing of black tea is usually done in the following four steps:

[I] Withering
The fresh tea leaves contain about 75% water. The plucked leaves are spread over
withering racks, stacked one over the other for 12-18 hours. In this process, leaves
lose their moisture. Sometimes, heated air is forced over the racks if atmosphere is
humid. The leaves slowly and evenly become soft and flaccid and ready for rolling.

[II] Rolling
Rolling imparts characteristic twist to the leaf, breaks the leaf cells and exposes the
juices to the air for fermentation to set in. The rolling is done by special types of
machines. Thereafter, leaves are completely dried and the final product is known as
green or unfermented tea with dull green leaves. Black or fermented tea is prepared
by fermenting green tea.

[III] Fermentation
The process of fermentation is carried out in specially designed fermentation
chambers where temperature, humidity and air circulation can be regulated. Since
leaves are damaged during rolling, the enzyme polyphenol oxidase becomes active
and acts on the substrate polyphenol. The oxidation results in the production of
orthoquinones which provides characteristic dark color to the leaves. To achieve
fermentation, rolled leaves are spread in thin layers on a glass or aluminium surface.
The process of fermentation is completed within three hours. The less fermented tea
is more pungent and longer fermented tea is soft and deeper in color. During
fermentation, the color turns bright red and leaves develop a characteristic aroma
and flavour.

[IV] Drying

17
 After fermentation, when leaves change their color, they are subjected to drying. The
main aim of drying is to stop the process of fermentation and to reduce the amount
of moisture present. The drying is done in specially constructed ovens. The
fermented leaves are exposed to a current of hot air at 90-100 degree Celsius for 20-
25 minutes. Careful regulation of temperature is essential as excessive heat will
scorch the leaves while lack of it will result in improper drying. When dried with
care the product is brisk and pungent with a typical black appearance.
Oolong tea is partially fermented product, intermediate between green and
black tea, having the flavour of the former and the color of the latter. Brick tea is
prepared from the waste left after the preparation of black and green teas.

[V] Grading and Sorting

Tea obtained after drying consists of intact leaves and their small and larger pieces.
Hence its grading and sorting is necessary from commercial point of view. It is
graded on mechanically oscillated sieves where leaves of different sizes are
separated. The following are some major recognized grades of tea trade:
(1) Broken orange pekoe
(2) Flowery broken orange pekoe
(3) Broken pekoe
(4) Orange pekoe
(5) Flowery pekoe
(6) Broken orange pekoe fannings
(7) Fannings and dust

18
Various brands of tea available in the market are made by blending different tea grades.
They are then packed and sent to the [Link] grading tea is packed in tea-chest
lined with aluminium foil paper toprotect leaves from moisture.

2.8 Green Tea-

About 20 per cent of the tea consumed all over the world is the green tea. Preparation
of green tea does not involve the processes of withering and fermentation. The steps
include in its making are
i) Heating or steaming
ii) Rolling and
iii) Drying

Heating or steaming: The leaves are generally plucked without stalk and heated in an
iron pan or steamed. Steaming makes the leaves pliable for rolling and protect them
from fermentation and blackening. This process inactivates the enzymes polyphenol
oxidase and prevents the oxidation of polyphenols. The leaves are rolled and dried
almost in a similar way to black tea. Drying retains the greenish colour of leaf. Tea
obtained by iron pan firing is of better quality. To improve the colour of leaves
polishing is done with
soapstone or French chalk. The tannin and caffeine content is higher in green tea in
comparison to black tea. In China and Japan most teas are made of this type. In India
small quantity of green tea is manufactured in North India.

19
2.9 Oolong Tea-

It is an exclusive produce of Taiwan (Fermora) and a favourite tea of Americans. The

manufacturing process is similar to that of black tea but it is semi-fermented. Light
fermented tea has a characteristic flavour because of the particular variety of tea grown
under a particular set of soil and climate
conditions of femora. Oolong Tea is basically oxidized black tea giving it a dark colour
and rich matty aroma. The processing involved four steps i.e. withering, light
fermentation, rolling and drying. Withering is done in strong sunlight followed by slight
fermentation. Tea leaves are rolled and dried. Rolling is an important aspect of oolong
tea. Leaves are rolled in tight balls or thin strands. Most oolong teas especially those of
fine quality involve unique tea plant cultivars that are exclusively used for particular
varieties.

20
2.10 Qualities of Tea-

The quality of tea depends primarily upon the variety of the bush and the agroclimatic
conditions. The distinctive character of tea is mainly due to three principal constituents,
essential oils, alkaloidal fraction and polyphenols. The aroma and flavour of tea is due
to the presence of an ethereal oil, theol; the stimulatory and refreshing properties due
to caffeine alkaloid; and the bitterness and astringency due to polyphenols (tannins).
Chemically, tea consists 2.5% theine, 13-18% polyphenols and essential oils. In
addition, it contains several of the B-complex vitamins and nicotinic acid. It is
astringent, stimulant, diuretic and nervine.

Table 3- Health Benefits of various types of tea.

Types of Tea Health Benefits

Green Tea Prevent cardiovascular diseases.

Reduce neurological disorders like

Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s disease.

Reduce risk of stroke.

Black Tea Protects lungs from damage.

Reduce risk of stroke.

Help in maintaining a normal blood

pressure.
Oolong Tea Protect heart by reducing cholesterol.

21
 Possess anticancerous properties.

Fluoride help in keeping the teeth strong.

Strengthen immune system.

White Tea Lower cholesterol level.
Keep blood sugar under control.
Chamomile Tea Possess anticancerous properties.

Used in treatment of bowel syndrome.

Stop gastrointestinal inflammation.

Table 4- Specific requirements of Tea by FSSAI

Parameters Requirements
Total Ash (w/w) Min. 4.0% and Max. 8.0%
Water soluble ash Min. 45% of total ash
Alkalinity of water soluble ash expressed Min. 1.0% and Max. 3.0%
as KOH (w/w)
Acid insoluble ash (w/w) Max. 1.0%
Water extract (w/w) Min. 32.0%
Crude fibre (w/w) Max. 16.5%

2.11Varieties
Tea has about 1000 varieties. Cultivated forms are generally grouped into two types,
namely the Chinese tea (C. sinensisvarsinensis) and Assam tea
([Link]). Besides these two varieties hybrid teas (sinensisX
assamica) are also cultivated. Most of the tea cultivated outside China Japan and Assam
is hybrid tea. China tea is a slow growing, herb with multiple branches, around 1 to 2 m
tall with life span of about 100 years. It has relatively narrow, short dark green leaves,
4-7 cm long with a dull flat surface pointing upward. It is hardy and with stand cold
winters. Flowers are borne
singly. Assam tea plant is a quick growing, lesshardier, single stemmed tree with height
of 6.0-18.3 m which has economic life of 40 years. Leaves are larger (15-30 cm long),
pale green with glossy upper surface. Flowers are borne in clusters of 2-4. Crop yield is
greater than Chinese variety.

22
2.12 Important Improved Varieties of Tea

Two improved varieties of tea cultivated in India are Darjeeling tea and Assam tea.
Darjeeling tea is more fragrant and soft than Assam tea. In India three research stations:
(i) Tocklai Experimental Station, Assam
(ii) Tea Research Institute, Dooarg, West Bengal
(iii) Government Tea Experiment Farm, Palampur
are engaged in improving varieties of tea and their processing.
TV 23, Phoobsering 312, TV 9, and Tukdah 253 are some improved strains of tea
cultivated in India.

2.13 Tea in India

India is world’s largest producer, consumer and exporter of black tea. In India tea
production was one million tonne in 2011-12. India is the only country which produces
both CTC and orthodox tea in substantial quantities. India produced approximately 650
million kg CTC tea, most of which was consumed at home.
India’s 98% of tea production comes from Assam, West Bengal, Kerela and Tamil
Nadu. It has more than doubled its production since 1947, mainly by increasing yield
through the use of improved methods of planting and optimal use of inputs.
Tea is mainly a labour-intensive industry providing employment to over a
million people directly and another million indirectly by way of ancillary occupations.
Tea is a major foreign exchange earner for India. In 1951, Indian tea export was only
800 million, in 1991-92 it was increased to rupees 12,000 million and in 2007-08 it was
over rupees 16,950 million.
Tea Board, set up under the Tea Act 1953, promotes development of the tea
industry. The board comprises of a chairman and 30 other members representing
owners of tea estates, manufacturers and dealers of tea, consumers, members of
Parliament and governments of principal tea growing states.
Tea Trading Corporation Of India was established in 1971 to create a stable export
market for Indian tea, particularly in its value added form, such as packaged tea, tea
bags and instant tea. Other activities of corporation include marketing of tea for
domestic consumption, management of tea gardens, warehousing of tea and
establishment of other facilities beneficial to the tea industry. Institute of Tea
Technology provides practical and theoretical training to tea growers.

23
2.14 Uses
• Tea is the most popular non-alcoholic beverage consumed worldwide.
• Tea is considered a health promoting drink as proved by the detailed
Research.

The health benefits of tea include:

• It contains antioxidants good for health.
• It is able to reduce blood pressure hence reducing the risk of heart
attack and stroke.
• It helps in weight loss.
• It may help protect bones.
• It may reduce the risk of various types of cancers.
• Tea especially green tea is a rich source of flavonoids and bioactive
compounds that can lessen stress, relieve inflammation and are good for
overall health.
• Some herbal teas are known for their medicinal values.
2.15 TEA PRODUCTS –

Introduction- Value addition to tea has been a reality and since people are fond of
stimulating beverages, there has been introduction of an array of specialty tea
products. Some of the examples of such specialty tea products are discussed herein.

Flavoured Tea-
Teas are sometimes scented with various plant essential oils such as lemon, bergamot,
rose and fragrant olive which impart sweet floral attributes to enhance the natural
flavour of tea. Otherteas are blended with flower petals, spices or dried leaf such as
Rosemary, Peppermint, Camomile and Chrysanthemum.
Flavours-
The flavours that have been used include chocolate, jasmine, mandarin orange peel,
Bergamot and other sweet herbs. In India, cardamom, ginger, lemon, bergamot and
mint are popular flavoured teas.
Brick Tea-
These are tea (black or green) which are compressed in the form of bricks or cakes.
Portions of bricks are broken off for use and are sometimes cooked with butter or other
fats.

24
Herbal Tea-
This type of tea can be made using dried rosemary herb. Prepare dark out of optimum
level of concentration of Rosemary herb. Blend black tea and rosemary; combination of
other herbs like basil, mint, lemongrass, thyme, chamomile with rosemary.

Tea Bag-
The first tea bags were hand-sewn silk bags and tea bag patents dated as early as 1903.
First appearing commercially around 1904, tea bags were successfully marketed by the
tea and coffee shop merchant Thomas Sullivan from New York, who shipped his tea
bags around the world. Modern tea bags are usually made of paper fibre. The heat-
sealed paper fiber tea bag was invented by William Hermanson, one of the founders of
Technical Papers Corporation of Boston. The rectangular tea bag was invented in 1944.
Prior to this tea bags resembled small sacks. The tea bag is referred to as „Cinderella‟
of tea industry – now dressed in paper instead of silken gown. A tea bag is a small,
porous sealed bag containing tea leaves and used for brewing tea. Tea bags are
commonly made of paper, silk or plastic. The bag contains the tea leaves while the tea is
brewed, making it easier to dispose of the leaves, and performs the same function as a
tea infuser. Some tea bags have an attached piece of string with a paper label at the top
that assists in removing the bag while also identifying the variety of tea.A broad variety
of teas, including herbal teas, are available in tea bags. Typically, tea bags use fannings,
the left-overs after larger leaf pieces are gathered for sale as loose tea, but some
companies such as Honest Tea sells teabags containing whole-leaf tea.

Products promoted on health grounds-

Decaffeinated teais promoted on health grounds. Tea is decaffeinated with methylene

chloride or other chlorinated solvents and supercritical [Link] type of tea is
promoted on health grounds. Chloroform or methylene chloride is an active solvent for
isolating caffeine from tea leaf. However, it is not widely accepted by consumers
because of its toxicity. Decaffeination using supercritical carbon dioxide is effective and
leaves no solvent residues, but it needs expensive equipment. Sawdust lingocellulose
25
columns can be used to separate caffeine from tea extracts, but they are difficult to use
for decaffeination of tea leaf.

Hot water treatment – an alternate safe [Link] fresh tea leaf was decaffeinated
with a ratio of tea leaf to water of 1:20 (w/v) at 100oC for 3 min, caffeine concentration
was decreased from 23.7 to 4.0 mg/g, while total tea catechins decreased from 134.5 to
127.6 mg/g; 83% of caffeine was removed and 95% of totalcatechins was retained in
the decaffeinated leaf. Hence, hot water treatment can be considered to be a safe and
inexpensive method for decaffeinating green tea. However, a large percentage of tea
catechins were lost if rolled leaf and dry tea were decaffeinated by such treatment and
so this process is not suitable for processing black tea.

Aseptic Packaging Tea Concentrates-

These are produced from top quality tea leaf (Camellia sinensis) through hot water
extraction and Reverse Osmosis (RO) concentration at low temperature. It is then
subjected to Ultra High Temperature (UHT) treatment and aseptically packaged. The
products include green tea, Jasmine tea, Oolong tea and Black tea. The liquid
concentrates look crystal clear and retain the flavour characteristics of tea leaf and are
ideally suitable for making iced tea mixes and Ready-to-Drink (RTD) tea beverage.

2.16 Instant Tea-

It is the water-soluble extract of tea leaf, usually marketed as a powder, flake or granule,
either pure or as a part of flavoured mixes.
Most Instant tea is made from black tea, but some is made from green tea. These are
produced especially in USA and UK. Iced lemon teas are popular example in USA.
Instant tea is presently manufactured by spray/freeze drying of the concentrated brew
of processed tea leaves/dust. A new technique has been developed for the production of
instant/soluble tea powder from the expressed juice of green leaves. After plucking, the
leaves are crushed and juice pressed out. The juice is then subjected to fermentation
under specified conditions. The fermented juice is steamed, centrifuged and freezedried
to get instant tea powder. At the same time, the pressed leaf residue is subjected to
fermentation and drying for preparation of tea granules. The instant tea produced is of
good liquoring characteristics. The theaflavin to thearubigin ratio was 10.71 for instant
tea and 12.12 for tea granules. The caffeine content was 40.4 mg and 96 mg per cup for
instant tea and tea granules respectively. There is considerable savings in the economy
as the juice and residue are converted into value-added products using this method.

26
CHAPTER 3

COFFEE

Botanical Name- Coffeaarabica

Family- Rubiaceae

3.1 Green coffee

A green coffee bean is a commercial term which designates the dried seed of the coffee
plant. It has about 10.0% moisture. Coffee plant or tree belongs to Coffea genus.

3.2 Classification of Green Coffee Beans-

27
Two species are commercially important for green coffee: Coffeacanephora (also
referred to as C. robusta) Coffeaarabica L. Arabica accounts for 75% of global coffee
production. Arabica coffee bush bears about 5 kg fruit per year which corresponds to
300-400g of Instant coffee. Robusta bushes yield slightly higher.

3.3Comparison of C. robusta with C. arabica-

• Flavour quality (roasted and brewed) is generally considered to be inferior for C.

robusta.
• Less expensive per unit weight of green coffee.
• Characteristics found favourable in manufacture of some instant coffees.
• Often features in Espresso coffee.
• Consumed as regular brewed coffee.
• Arabica has more aroma.
• Robusta contains more caffeine and is consequently slightly bitter.
• Indian coffee is the most extraordinary of beverages, offering intriguing subtlety
and stimulating intensity. India is the only country that grows all of its coffee
under shade. Typically, mild and not too acidic, these coffees possess an exotic
full-bodied taste and a fine aroma.
• India‟s coffee growing regions have diverse climatic conditions, which are well
suited for cultivation of different varieties of coffee. Some regions with high
elevations are ideally suited for growing Arabicas of mild quality, while those with
warm humid conditions are best suited for Robusta‟s.

3.4 Origin and distribution-

Domestication of coffee began nearly 500 years ago and it became popular as beverage
only since eighteen century. It is one of the most important non alcoholic drinks
consumed by one third of world’s population. It is one of the important commercial
crops of the tropical countries. For better economicreturns it is intercropped with
banana and figs.
The word coffea originated from “Kaffa”, the name of a district in Shoa, South-west
Abyssinia where the coffee plant was first discovered. Coffeaarabica, the source of
coffee, is indigenous to the tropical rainforests of Ethiopia where leaves and dried
berries of this plant have been used as a masticatory since ancient times. In the 8th
century it was accidentally discovered that if sheep while grazing had eaten the fruits of
this plant they became excited and sleepless. Thus, natives also started using berries
and leaves of coffee plant for intoxication and exhilaration. The Dutch introduced coffee
to Ceylon in 1658 and to Java, Sumatra and other island of Malaya Archipelago in 1699.
Coffee was introduced to India by the Britishers around 1700. Now coffee is widely
28
cultivated in Brazil, Colombia, Ivory Coast, Mexico, Uganda, Indonesia, Ethiopia, El-
Salvador, Guatemala, Angola, India and Ceylon. In India, it is mostly grown in Karnataka,
Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Orissa. About one half of the total Indian production comes
from Karnataka alone. Coffee is indigenous to Abyssinia Plateau (Ethiopia) from where
it was taken to Arabia and in the 17th century coffee seeds were brought to India by
Baba Budan and raised in the Baba Budan hills (Karnataka). British planters took keen
interest in coffee plantation and large coffee estates were established near Chikmagalur
(Karnataka) in 1826, in Manantody (Wyanad) and Shivroys in 1830 and in Nilgiris in
1839. The plant was introduced in Java and islands of Indonesian archipelago in the
seventeen century.
In nineteenth century it was carried to America. The coffee production centre shifted to
Brazil by the 20th century. Brazil is the world’s largest coffee producing country. Genus
Coffeacomprises about 90 species of which four are important for making beverage.
Maximum species are native of Africa and Madagascar. Coffee arabicais most widely
cultivated and only polyploid species (tetraploid,
4X= 44) C. canephora or robustacoffee is a diploid spp. (2X = 22) indigenous to Congo
basin and Uganda where it is grown wild in warm and humid climate. Robusta coffee
was found to be good substitute for arabica type. U.S.A is a greatest coffee consuming
country. Few important species of genus Coffeainclude:

i) C. arabica(Arabian coffee)
ii) C. robustaor C. canephora(Congo coffee or Pierre Robusta coffee)
iii) C. libericaBullexHiern (Liberian coffee)
iv) C. excelsaA Chiv (Excelsa coffee)

Most of the world production (about 80 per cent) of coffee is obtained from C. arabica.
It produces the best quality coffee.

3.5 Organic Coffee-

Organic coffee are those produced by such management practices which help to
conserve or enhance soil structure, resilience and fertility by applying cultivation
practices that use only non-synthetic nutrients and plant protection methods. Further,
there has to be credible certification by an accredited certification agency. Organic
coffee is being produced by about 40 countries in the world with major production
share coming from Peru, Ethiopia and Mexico. Organic coffee is chiefly consumed in the
Europe, US and Japan. Organic coffee products are now marketed in the form of
regular, decaffeinated, flavoured and instant coffee as well as in other foods like ice
creams, yoghurt, sodas, candies and chocolate covered beans, etc.

3.6 Green Bean Processing-

29
Green bean itself has no comestible value for humans and must be roasted before use
as a flavourful and stimulant aqueous beverage. Green coffee beans are dried, cleaned
and packed usually in 60 kg bags and stored before they are roasted.

3.7 Botanical Characteristics-

There are some 25 species of Coffea, of which [Link], [Link], [Link] and
[Link] are commercially important. About 90% of the world’s total production of
coffee is obtained from [Link], a species widely grown in India and several other
Asian countries. The two main varieties under cultivation are [Link] and
[Link].
The arabian coffee is a perennial shrub or a small tree, attaining a height of 4.5-
9 m. The height of the plant is kept low under cultivation by pruning which promotes
branching. The leaves are opposite, ovate and with undulate margins. The white
fragrant flowers are borne in dense axillary clusters. The fruit is one or two-seeded
drupe which turns crimson red at maturity.

3.8 Coffee Cultivation

30
Arabian coffee prefers a cooler (an average temperature of 15-21 degree Celsius) and
less humid climate. It requires an unevenly distributed annual rainfall of over 150 cm
for healthy growth and productivity. Extremely low temperature and hot winds are not
favourable to the plant. It prefers deep, rich, well- drained forest loam.
Coffee is mostly cultivated on slopes or terrace land. As, coffee plantations also
need shade, tress like Grevillea robusta, Albizialebbek and Terminalia belerica are
planted in between coffee plants. Coffee is usually propagated by seeds, but cuttings
and grafting are also employed for vegetative propagation. Seeds take about 35-40 days
to germinate. When seedlings are about six months old, they are transplanted usually in
the rainy season. In the earlier years, to induce branches, pruning is done at suitable
intervals and the height of the plant is kept limited to 1-1.5 [Link] bears white
axillary flowers 2-3 times a year. The fruits are two-seeded drupes with 3 distinct
layers. The coffee berries have tough red coloured exocarp fleshy mesocarp and thin
membranous endocarp. Coffee beans contain caffeine, a volatile oil, glucose, dextrins,
proteins and fatty oil. The seeds are ellipsoidal, bean like, about 0.5 inches in length and
are covered by a thin shining testa when ripe the seeds are hard and green.
Coffee plants begin to bear fruits in the third or fourth year and continue to bear
for about 50 years. The fruits are picked 3 to 12 times in a year depending on the
region. The ripe fruits are picked either by hand or by shaking the coffee bushes.

3.9 Processing of Coffee

The coffee berries are processed by wet or dry methods. In dry method, berries are first
dried in sun or in hot air driers. During this process they are agitated to permit uniform
and thorough drying. Then seeds are separated from dry berries by hand pounding or
by using hulling machines.
In wet method, berries are kept in large tanks filled with water. Immature berries
float on water surface and they are removed. Pulp and seeds are separated from ripe

31
berries with the help of pulping machine. Seeds thus obtained are known as parchment
coffee. A thin layer of pulp still remains adhered to the seed surface and to remove this
layer seeds are again kept in water tank for 12-14 hours. The pulpy layer is removed by
fermentation which may be hastened by adding enzyme preparations or 2% sodium
hydroxide. After fermentation seeds gain a specific flavour. The surface of depulped
seeds is then polished to make them attractive.
The moisture content of seeds is maintained to about 12% by exposing them
to sun or by hot air driers. The coffee beans are graded on the basis of their shape and
size. The main grades are plantation A.B and Triage; Arabica cherry AB and Robusta
cherry AB and Triage.
Unroasted coffee seeds improve with age but after roasting they deteriorate with
time. Thus, shipping is usually done of unroasted seeds. Roasting of coffee seeds is done
in roasting machines for five minutes at a temperature of 260 degree Celsius. After
roasting, seeds become deep rich brown in color and develop a characteristic aroma
and flavour. The roasted seeds are then grinded, and powdered coffee is immediately
packed in sealed containers.
Instant coffee is obtained by vapourising a strong infusion of coffee in vacuum or by
freeze-drying technique. Decaffeinated coffee is prepared by removing caffein from
unroasted seeds with an organic solvent.
Various steps involved in processing of coffee.

1)Picking of fruits
2)Pulping
3)Fermentation
4)Drying
5)Hulling
6)Polishing
7)Grading
8)Roasting
9)Grinding
10)Packing

32
3.10 Varieties of Coffee

Sln. 1, Sln. 2, Sln. 3, Sln. 10 and Cauvery are important commercial cultivars of arabica
coffee grown in India. Whereas Sln. 1R, Sln. 2R and Sln. 3R are important cultivars of
robusta coffee.

3.11 Qualities of Coffee

Coffee quality is defined as a summative index of many characteristics such as

appearance and moisture content in the raw beans and roast and liquor qualities
comprising factors like aroma, body and acidity. Caffein and caffetannic acid are the two
main alkaloids present in coffee seeds. Caffeine contents vary from 0.75 to 2.5% and
bitterness and stimulating effect of coffee are due to its presence. Raw seeds have more
caffeine contents than roasted seeds. The flavour of coffee is due to the presence of a
volatile oil, caffeol. A number of factors such as location, varietal type, degree of
ripeness of the seed, method of processing and reasoning and type of substitutes used
also determine the flavour. Prolonged roasting renders coffee bitter and acrid, while
under-roasting affects extraction of caffeine in the liquor.

33
3.12 Uses

Roasted seeds of coffee is mainly used as a beverage for its pleasant aroma and
stimulating effect. It is blended with the powder of dried roasted roots of cichory
(Cichoriumintybus) or powder of malted wheat or barley. Coffee is also used for
flavouring ice-creams, candies and pastries.
In medicines, it is used as stimulant, nervine and diuretic. Bad effects of excessive
use of coffee is due to the presence of a volatile toxic substance, called cafeotoxin.
The leaves of coffee are also used as a beverage in certain parts of Malaya. In
Arabia, an alcoholic drink is prepared from dried coffee pulp. Coffee pulp is used as
cattlefeed. Caffelite, a plastic material with good insulating properties, is made from
coffee seeds. The wood of coffee plant is used for making boxes and the branches for
walking sticks and hammer handles, etc. The presence of stimulative alkaloids in coffee
makes it a much wantedbeverage. It relieves fatigue and stimulates nervous and
vascularsystems of the body. A cup of coffee contains 3 times more caffeine
[Link] is the mostcommon adulterant ofcoffee. Besides this
dried peas are also added in coffee as adulterant. It increases the flow of urine
(diuretic) and aids in digestion by stimulating the secretion of digestive juices and
increasing intestinal [Link] Sumatra coffee leaves are used like tea leaves to
prepare [Link] India the residues from the coffee processing are used as fertilizer
and [Link] is given along with ergot to relieve pain of migraine. It has therapeutic
value in the treatment of bronchial asthma as it relaxes smooth muscles of bronchi.

3.13 Coffee in India

In India, coffee cultivation is mainly confined to three southern states of Karnataka,

Kerela and Tamil Nadu. The area under coffee cultivation was 91,000 hectares in 1950-
51, which was increased to 171,000 hectares in 1978, 242,000 hectares in 1992,
300,000 hectares in 2001-02 and over 400,000 hectares in 2011-12. Over 97% of coffee
holdings are small holdings of less than ten hectares. Average productivity also
increased from 452 kg per hectare in 1983-84 to more than 838 kg per hectare in 2011-
12. Production of coffee during 2011-12 was about 301,000 tonnes as compared to
110,000 tonnes in 1978-79 and only 25,000 tonnes in 1950-51. Exports of coffee during
2001-02 were more than 213,241 tonneswith a foreign exchange earnings of 10,500
million rupees.
The Coffee Board, set up in 1942 at Bangalore, is responsible for the
development of coffee industry in India. It has undertaken a Coffee Development Plan to
improve yield and quality of coffee. Under the Coffee Act, all coffee produced is
compulsorily pooled with the Coffee Board for sale and disposal. The unique
mechanism of coffee pooling and separate auction system for domestic sale and export
sales has helped in providing fair returns to growers.
34
3.14 Monsooned coffee-

A speciality of Indian coffee is the Monsooned coffee, which is in good demand in

several countries of Europe, particularly the Scandinavian countries. Monsooning of
coffee is done by coffee curers on the West Coast of India. Monsooned coffee had its
origin in the days of sailing ships, when it took about six months for unwashed coffee to
be sent to Europe. During this period of voyage, the coffee in the damp holds of the ship
lost its original colour and acquired a special flavour which has been liked by
consumers in Norway, France and Switzerland. With the opening of the Suez and speedy
transport of steamships, consumers in Europe complained that they missed the special
flavour of the unwashed Indian coffee! The curers on the West Coast rose to the
occasion and perfected the process known as 'monsooning', by which coffee acquired
the special flavour. Indian monsooned coffee is coffee with a golden colour. With the
outbreak of the South-West Monsoon, late in May or early in June, unwashed coffee
(Arabica Cherry or Robusta Cherry coffees) is evenly spread, about 4 to 6 inches thick,
in airy godowns, open on all sides. It is racked, from time to time, for about four or five
days. It is packed loose in gunny bags and stacked in piles with sufficient space between
rows, to enable the monsoon air to circulate freely around each bag. The coffee beans
are bulked and repacked, once a week, or they are poured from one leaf to another,
prevent their getting mouldy and ensure even monsooning. In about a month and a half,
the coffee assumes golden colour, when it is considered to be fully monsooned. At this
stage, the coffee beans are carefully hand-garbled to remove those beans that are not up
to the requiredstandard.
After mild fumigation treatment to prevent attacks by weevils, the monsooned coffee is
ready for shipment. Monsooned coffee is generally sold for export during October to
December, every year. The grades offered for sale are Monsooned Malabar AA,
MonsoonedBasanally and Monsooned Robusta AB. Why Indian Coffee is one of the
Finest? Lovers of good coffee often wonder how Indian coffee is distinctive, delicious
and distinguishable. To comprehend fully the principal reasons forIndian coffee being
one of the world's finest coffees is to understand pretty well a whole range of coffee
facts and operations in the country. Nature with its generous Indian climate and rich
soil, pampers coffee's growth. Careful scientific cultivation of the coffee on hill slopes,
programmed picking of the coffee fruits by deft human hands and the gentle
painstaking manner in which they are processed, unlock the full flavour latent in every
bean. Rigid assessment of quality leads to the export of only the finest beans accounting
for the superiority and fine aroma of India's high grown mild coffees. Many of the
different growths of Indian coffee, like Biligiris, Bababudans, other Mysores, Coorgs,
Nilgiris, Naidubattams, Shevaroys, Anamallais, Pulneys, Nelliampathis, and
NilagirisWynaad are familiar to importers of coffee in different countries of the world,
as being synonymous, with supreme quality coffee. This is because the Indian Coffee
35
Industry has to its credit three hundred years of continuous service in growing and
making available high grown, good quality, mild coffee. Indian coffee has a high
reputation in the world market. This is because of the high quality of Indian coffee and
the infinite care taken by the Coffee Board to maintain high standard at each stage of
processing Indian coffee from the seed to the cup and special attention given to the
screening and selection of only the best coffee for export, so that coffee connoisseurs
around the world can always enjoy the superior and fine aroma of India's high-grown
mild coffees.

3.15 INSTANT COFFEE-

Introduction to Instant Coffee- Instant coffee, also called soluble coffee and coffee
powder, is a beverage derived from brewed coffee beans. It is the dried soluble portion
of roasted coffee, which can be presented to the consumer in either powder or granule
form for immediate make-up in hot water. Instant coffee is commercially prepared by
either freezedrying or spray drying, after which it can be rehydrated. Instant coffee was
invented in 1901 by Satori Kato, a Japanese scientist working in Chicago. Historically,
most instant or soluble coffees first contained added carbohydrates (~ 50% w/w) such
as corn syrup solids, as simple aqueous extract of roasted coffee, extracted under
atmospheric conditions (100oC). However, it could not be spray dried to a satisfactorily
free-flowing low-hygroscopic powder. In 1950, Instant coffee of 100% pure coffee
solids became commercially available. In 1965, Instant coffee in soluble form,
somewhat darker in colour and improved retention of aromatics became available. The
manufacture of instant coffee is accompanied by some slight hydrolysis of the
polysaccharides in the roasted coffee (by further aqueous extraction at temperatures up
to 175oC and addition to the simple extract before drying), which is reflected in the
slightly increased reducing sugar content (i.e. arabinose, mannose and galactose) and
probably assists solubilization of these polysaccharides, not otherwise easily possible at
100oC. This provides a powder of satisfactory physical properties. Advantages of
instant coffee include speed of preparation (instant coffee dissolves instantly in hot
water), lower shipping weight and volume than beans or ground coffee (to prepare the
same amount of beverage), and long shelf [Link] 20% of all processed coffee beans
are used for making Instant coffee. The capacity of the plant available is up to 500 kg of
Instant coffee per hour.

36
CHAPTER 4

COCOA

Botanical name- Theobroma cacao

Family- Sterculiaceae

4.1 Origin and Distribution

Word’ Theobroma” is derived from Greek words- ‘Theos’ meaning God and ‘Broma’
meaning food. Hence cocoa is also called as ‘Food of the Gods’.
Cocoa and chocolate are two major products obtained from roasted kernels of ripe
seeds of Theobroma cacao, a native of the low-lying areas of tropical Central and South
America. It was cultivated by the Aztecs, Mayas and other tribes of Central and South
America and West Indies long before the discovery of the new world. The habit of
drinking cocoa was brought to Europe by the Spaniards who found cocoa more
palatable when it was sweetened. In 1525, the Spaniards planted cocoa trees in
Trinidad and later in Venezuela. It was introduced into the Philippine Islands in 1670
and later the Dutch carried it to Ceylon and Indonesia, and to the island of Sao Tome in
the Gulf of Guinea, off the west coast of Africa. Nearly two-thirds of the total world’s
production of cocoa comes from Africa. The principal cocoa growing countries are
Mexico, Guatemala, Salvador, Costa Rica, Colombia, Peru, Ecuador, Brazil, Venezuela,
Trinidad, Jamaica, Cuba, Nigeria, Mauritius, Sri Lanka, Java, Sumatra, Fiji, Ghana and
Philippines Islands. Cocoa and chocolate are the most nutritious of all beverages.
Initially it was grown in Brazil, Equador and other neighboring regions. Today it is
extensively grown in Africa (Ghana and Nigeria), Java and SriLanka. Nearly two thirds
of the world production of cocoa is from Africa while the rest is from South and Central
America, Brazil, West Indies, Indonesia, Srilanka and India. In India it is cultivated on
Malabar coasts and valleys of Nilgiris. After processing cocoa is exported to temperate
countries. Europe consumes more than 50% and America consumes about 40% of
world’s production of cocoa.
In India, cocoa was introduced from Ceylon. Kerela is the principal cocoa
growing state in India, accounting for about 80 percent of total area under cultivation
(about 20,000 hectares), followed by Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.

37
4.2 Botanical Characteristics

It is a small , evergreen profusely branched tree attaining a height of up to 12 m in the

wild state, but under cultivation its height is limited to 7 m. The leaves are dark green
and oblong-oval or elliptic-oblong. It is cauliflorous; the flowers and fruits are borne on
older branches and the trunk. The flowers are small, white, yellow, or rose coloured and
are borne in small clusters. The pods are elliptic-ovoid, 22.5-30 cm long and 10 cm in
diameter and yellow, red or maroon in colour. There are about 20-40 seeds, embedded
in a mucilaginous pulp inside each pod. Branching pattern of tree is characteristic and
unusual. Branching is profuse and starts when plants are only 0.9-1.5m tall. Main stem
divides into 4-6 lateral branches that arise at the same point and collectively called as
“jorquette” or fan. Soon, an axillary bud develops into a vertical orthotropic shoot just
below the jorquette. This shoot is called as ‘chupon’ which again forms a jorquette few
feet higher up and another chuponarises just beneath the second jorquette. The process
may repeat for third or even the fourth time producing a leafy canopy. The leaves are
spirally arranged on the main stem and subsequent chupons but are alternately placed
on the jorquette branches. The mature leaves are dark green, about 37 cm long and 7.5
cm broad, oblong-oval or elliptic-oblong with prominent veins and veinlets. The short
petiole has two articulations. The flowers arise in clusters in cushions on the main stem
and old branches. Flowers are tiny, bisexual, regular, pedicellate and white, yellow or
rose coloured. Only a few of the many thousand flowers develop into fruits. Flowering
and fruiting continues throughout the year.
The mature fruits are berry but commonly called as pod and are composed
of thick leathery, smooth or corrugated pericarp. Fruits vary in shape and colour in
different varieties. They may be green, yellow, red, orange or purple. Inside the pod are
20-40 flat or round seeds, The ‘cocoa beans’ are
embedded in a white pink or brown aromatic, mucilaginous, sweet or little acidic pulp.
Seed are arranged in rows. Varieties: Commercially its two major varieties can be
distinguished.

i) Criollo, and
ii) Forastero

Criollo Cocoa - Mainly grown in Venezuela, Columbia and Central America. The ripe
pods are yellow or red. The surface of pods is rough and warty. They are deeply
furrowed and have pointed ends. Seeds are large, rounded and contain white or pale
violet cotyledons with pleasing aroma. It produces
superior quality of cocoa, but due to low adaptability, susceptibility to diseases and
lower yield, its cultivation is restricted.

Ferastero Cocoa - The pods are less furrowed, smooth and with rounded ends. Pod is
green when immature turning yellow at maturity and has a thick wall. Beans are flat
and dark purple lacking the superior aroma of criollo and have a ‘harsh’ flavour with
bitter taste. Fonastero cocoas are hardier and more
38
vigorous, highly productive and resistant to disease. They are distributed in Brazil,
West Indies, South America and West Africa.

4.3 Cocoa Cultivation-

Cacao can be grown both as monocrop and as intermixed crop with other trees. Cocoa
thrives well in a warm and moist tropical climate. It is usually grown under a shade
canopy, formed by the foliage of taller trees. A temperature of 26 degrees Celsius, an
annual rainfall of 150-200 cm, well distributed throughout the year and high humidity
are desirable for healthy growth of the tree. It requires a good, well-drained, deep
porous soil, rich in humus and protection from strong winds.
Cocoa is propagated from seeds or by budding or cuttings. Six to eight months old
seedlings raised from seeds are planted. The tree begins to fruit when it is 4-5 years old,
but maximum yield is obtained when the tree is 10 years old and continues up to the
age of 70 years or more. Harvesting is done almost throughout the year with the help of
sharp knives. During cutting, care is taken not to damage cushion-like growths on the
trunk, the sites of the next years’ flowers. The bulk of the crop is collected in two
flushes, occurring between October and February and from May to August. Fruits are
detached from the tree when they are fully ripe with the help of a hook shaped knife
mounted on a long pole. The fruits are then split open and the seeds along with pulp are
removed for further processing. A good tree bears 70-80 pods in a year. There are
certain varieties which can produce up to 300 pods in a year under favourable
conditions.
A number of improved accessions (ICS 1 and ICS 6) having best adaptability and more
pod and bean yield per tree have been procured from abroad.

39
4.4 Processing of Cocoa

Proper fermentation and drying are essential pre-requisites for obtaining processed
beans of acceptable quality. The pH of processed beans and extent of fermentation of
beans are two critical characteristics recognized as important in determining the beans
quality and are dependent on the method of processing. Several factors such as variety,
temperature, moisture content, aeration and duration of fermentation affect the bean
quality. Processed bean quality is also governed by the fresh bean characteristics and
harvesting season.
The mature pods are cut open and seeds and pulp are scooped out, and then they are
cured and fermented. The fermentation is usually done in heaps or in medium sized
baskets, covered with banana leaves to retain heat. It takes four to seven days to
complete the fermentation process. During fermentation, sugar contents of beans are
first converted to alcohol and finally into acetic acid by the activity of microbes. This
imparts a chocolate brown colour to the beans.
After fermentation, seeds are rapidly dried to avoid fungal attack. It is usually done on
trays in open sun or by the use of artificial driers. The moisture content of beans is
reduced to 6%. The beans are cleaned by screens, air lifts or magnetic separators and
polished by machines. They are then graded and shipped.
Commercial cocoa and chocolate are prepared from these beans in factories. The
process includes roasting, shelling, and grinding. The beans are first cleaned and then
roasted in iron drums at a temperature of 125-140 degree Celsius. Roasting reduces the
acidity and astringency and deepens the colour. The beans are then broken into small
fragments by passing them between corrugated rollers, and finally ground to an oily
paste, the bitter chocolate. In the production of cocoa powder, cocoa mass is subjected
to hydraulic pressure to squeeze out about half of the fat (cocoa butter). Sugar
40
chocolate is prepared by adding sugar and other aromatic materials, and milk chocolate
is made by adding milk, sugar and spices to bitter chocolate.

4.5 Properties of Cocoa

Roasted seeds of cocoa contain 3% theobromine, 30-50% fatty oil, 15% starch, 15%
proteins and certain minerals like iron, phosphorus, manganese, zinc, aluminium, etc.
and vitamins of B-group. The stimulating qualities of cocoa are due to the presence of
theobromine and small quantities of caffeine, and the characteristic aroma due to an
essential oil, ‘cacool’.

4.6 Uses

Cocoa is a highly concentrated energy food. The roasted seeds are the source of a
beverage. Chocolate and cocoa butter prepared from seeds are widely used in
confectionary, milk chocolates, cocoa nibs, powdered chocolate, crème de cacao, etc.
Fermented sun-dried beans contain appreciable quantity of vitamin D. Cocoa also finds
wider application in pharmaceutical ointments and toiletries. Cocoa butter is used in
foaming mild washing compositions for human body. Suppositories suitable for
treatment of anal fissures, thrombophlebitichaemorrhoids and ulcerated haemorrhoids
are also made using cocoa butter. Cocoa shells are used as a livestock feed and as an
adulterant to cocoa powder and chocolate. The shells are also used as a filler for
thermosetting resins in the plastics industry. Cocoa hull is a good source of dietary fibre
41
and can be used to supplement other sources of fibre for food products. Cocoa is an
excellent beverage. The high fat content of the bean is reduced to half (25 per cent) and
the extracted fat is sold as cocoa butter. Cocoa butter is used as a medicine. It is used to
protect chapped hands and lips. It is also used as a fine edible fat.
Cocoa and chocolate are rich in nutrients like fats, proteins and carbohydrates, so they
are highly nutritious. The ‘cake’ gives caffeine like alkaloid theobromine which is used
in soft drinks, ‘colas’ and other purposes. The cocoa shells are used as cattle feed and as
fertilizer. They are also used as flavouring agent and as an adulterant of cocoa and
chocolate.

4.7 Other Caffeine containing beverages

Mate: It is obtained from the leaves of various species of Ilex chiefly Ilex paraguariensis.
It is also called as Paraguay tea.
Cola: It is obtained from the seeds of Cola nitidaseeds are called as cola or kola nuts.
Khat: In north-eastern Africa a beverage called Khat is obtained from the leaves of
Catha edulis.
Yoco: In Peru, Equador and Southern Columbia this beverage is obtained from the bark
of Yoco (Poulliniayoco).
Cassine: From Ilex vomitoriaof Mexico a tea like beverage is obtained. Other non-
alcoholic beverages are normally called soft drinks. These are usually juices of fruits
like orange, lemon, apple, pineapple, strawberry. Fruits juices are rich in sugars and are
good source of energy. Nowadays use of synthetic flavours in increasing in commercial
soft drinks. Other soft drinks include malt beverages, ginger ale and soda water.

42
CHAPTER 5

FRUIT BEVERAGES

Fruit beverages and drinks are one of the popular categories of beverages that are
consumed across the globe. The fruit beverages and drinks are easily digestible, highly
refreshing, thirst quenching, appetizing and nutritionally far superior to most of the
synthetic and aerated drinks. In recent past the consumption of fruit-based beverages
and drinks has increased at a fast rate. Fruit juices or pulp used for the preparation of
these products are subjected to minimal processing operations like filtration,
clarification and pasteurization. The fruit juice or pulp, are mixed with ingredients like
sugar, acid, stabilizers, micronutrients and preservative to develop beverages and
drinks. There are various categories of fruit juice or pulp-based beverages and drinks
which are listed below. Natural fruit juices, sweetened juices, ready-to-serve
beverages, nectar, cordial, squash, crush, syrup, fruit juice concentrate and fruit juice
powder belong to the category of non-alcoholic and non-carbonated beverages. The
principle groups of fruit beverages are as follows:
• Ready-to-Serve (RTS) pre-packaged Beverages
• Fruit juice and Nectars
• Dilutable beverages

5.1Ready-to-Serve (RTS) Beverages-

The ready-to-serve beverages as per FSSAI specifications should contain at least 10
percent fruit content and not less than 10 percent TSS besides 0.3% acid maximum as
citric acid. The levels of permitted preservatives include 70 ppm (maximum) for
43
sulphur dioxide and 120 ppm (maximum) for benzoic acid. The total plate count and
yeast and mold counts should not exceed, to 50.0 cfu/ml and 2.0 cfu/ml, respectively.
The Coliform counts should be nil in 100 ml beverage samples. Since these beverages
are consumed as such without dilution, hence are termed as “Ready-toserve” beverage.
The majority of packaged fruit beverages belong to this category. Wide range of fruits
including mango, citrus fruits, berries, litchi, guava, pineapple, grapes etc. are preferred
for RTS beverages. Required amount of sugar, acid, stabilizer, colouring and flavouring
ingredients are added in juice or pulp along with water and the mixture is blending
properly, filtered if desired. The RTS mix is pasteurized (80-900C) in bottle (20-30
min), continuous juice pasteurizer (few seconds to one minute) and cooled
immediately. Nowadays, UHT processing of RTS beverages is quite popular because of
longer shelf-life and less loss of nutrients during processing. The amount of fruit juice
or pulp may vary according to fruit and cost effectiveness. The presence of oxygen in
headspace often leads to oxidation resulting in off-flavour and loss of nutritive value,
hence anti-oxidants such as ascorbic acid is often added in RTS beverages. Besides it,
colour and flavour ingredients which are stable to heat and oxygen are preferred.

5.2 Natural fruit juice-

44
Natural fruit juices also falls in the category of RTS beverage. It may be defined as pure
juice which is extracted from ripe and mature fruits and contain 100 percent fruit
content. The juice is extracted by various methods and contains mainly sugars, acids,
vitamins, minerals and other minor components. These are preserved by thermal
processing and freezing. The commonly available fruit juices are apple, pineapple,
citrus, grapes, pomegranate and mango. The sweetened juices are beverages which
possess at least 85 percent juice and 10 percent TSS. The sugar and acids are added to
increase the TSS content and also to balance the acidto-sugar ratio. A wide variety of
fruit juices are used for the purpose. Sometime two or more juices are mixed to develop
a palatable and refreshing drink with better flavour and balanced nutrition. Such
beverages are also called as “fruit punch”. In certain fruits the blending or mixing of
juices is done to balance the acidity and minimize the flavor changes. Use of fruit juice
concentrate with suitable dilution with water is mostly used on commercial scale to
produce uniform quality product. Example:
• Very sweet (grape) and very bitter (grapefruit)
• Highly acidic (lime, lemon, sour cherry) with bland tasting fruits (pear, apple)
• Highly flavoured (guava, banana) with bland & insipid tasting fruits (pear, loquat)
The freshly squeezed juices have very short shelf-life; hence they have to be stored at 0-
50C to check spoilage. Some of them may have low pH (below 4.5) hence they require
thermal processing in the range of 85-950C for a minimal period to ensure commercial
sterility. The minimum TSS and acidity for various natural fruit juices has been
specified by FSSAI.

5.3 Nectar-
Nectar is prepared from the tropical fruits pulp such as mango, litchi, guava, papaya,
citrus fruits and pineapple by adding sugar, acid and other ingredients. As per FSSAI
specifications nectar should contain TSS not less than 15o Brix and not less than 20 per
cent fruit content, except for pineapple and citrus fruits where fruit content should not
be less than 40 percent. Fruit pulp or puree or juice or concentrate may be used as
starting [Link] acidity of the nectar should not be more than 3.5 per cent as
anhydrous citric acid. The maximum permissible limit of preservative in nectar is
sorbic acid at 50 ppm. The sorbic acid is added as sodium or potassium salt of sorbic
acid. Nectar is also not diluted before consumption. Nectar is also characterized by
cloudy appearance and thick mouthfeel. The cloudiness in nectar and other beverages
is because of the presence of polysaccharides such as pectin, cellulose, hemicellulose
and starch. The loss of cloudiness specially in citrus juices is due to the activity of pectin
methyl esterase (PME), which cause deesterification of pectin molecule resulting in
settling down of pectin and loss of cloudiness. Therefore, citrus juices or comminutes
must be thermally treated to inactive the PME. Sometime hydrocolloids are added to
stabilize the cloudiness. Preservation of nectar is achieved in similar way as mentioned
for RTS beverages. The limited shelf-life of nectar (few days at refrigeration
temperature) could be overcome by following any of the desired processing operation.
Flash pasteurization-

45
The nectar may be pasteurized in plate type pasteurizer which is provided with heat
recovery and cooling unit. Temperature in the range of 85-950C for 15 to 60 seconds is
used for most of the products; however, it again depends on type of the juice and initial
microbial load. The products where both enzyme and microbial inactivation is desired
slightly higher temperature i.e. 90-950C for not more than 15 seconds is used. Tubular
pasteurizer is preferred for slightly viscous nectars. For aseptic packaging operations,
pasteurizer is integrated with aseptic packaging unit either directly or via an aseptic
buffer tank.

In-pack pasteurization-

In-pack pasteurization is most preferred methods on small scale units. The juice is filled
in packs, mainly bottles and immersed in heated water tanks which are held at 80-
900C. The pasteurization conditions are 80850C for up to 20 minutes to ensure safety
of the product. The treated bottles are air-dried and then labeled. Care must be taken to
ensure that pack is sealed properly and product is processed at intended temperature.

Hot fill operation-

Hot filling offer a simpler mean of ensuring microbial integrity of the nectars. The bulk
product is heated to a pre-determined temperature then filled hot (70-850C) in packs
and sealed immediately. In case of glass bottle they should be pre-heated to minimize
thermal shock. The packs are inverted for proper mixing of the nectar and held at
desired temperature for required time. Finally they are cooled in hydro-cooler to 250C,
surface is air-dried and labeled.

5.4 Dilutable Beverages-

Dilutable beverages are the one which are consumed after mixing with suitable diluents
like water, alcoholic drinks or milk. The process for making such beverages is quite
similar to the syrup manufacture meant for carbonated beverages. These products offer
a number of advantages including the ability to use different syrup to water ratio,
reduction in bulk, utilization of surplus and bland tasting fruits and offer novel
innovations in formulations.
Cordial-

Fruit juice cordial is a sparkling clear sweetened fruit beverage from which all the pulp
and other suspended materials have been completely eliminated. Cordial is prepared
by mixing clarified fruit juice, with sugar syrup, acid and other ingredients. As per
FSSAI specification, cordial should contain not less than 25 percent fruit content and
the TSS content should not be less than 30° Brix. The acidity of the cordial should not
be more than 3.5 per cent as anhydrous citric acid. The maximum permissible limit of
preservative in cordial is 350 ppm of sulphur dioxide or 600 ppm of benzoic acid. The
citrus juices such as lime and lemon are preferred for making cordial. The cordial are
generally consumed by mixing with alcoholic beverages like gin. The fruit juices are
46
either stored for longer period to remove suspended solids and pectinous materials or
it may be treated with commercial enzyme preparations like pectinase to hydrolyze
pectin. The clarified juice is used for cordial preparation.

5.5 Squashes and crushes-

Squash is the product, which is prepared by mixing of calculated quantity of fruit juice
or pulp, with sugar, acid and other ingredients. As per FSSAI specifications, squash
should contain not less than 25 per cent fruit content in finished product and the total
soluble solids content should not be less than 40° Brix. The acidity of the squash should
not be more than 3.5 per cent as anhydrous citric acid. Mango, orange, lemon,
pineapples, grape and litchi are used for making squash commercially. Squash can also
be prepared from lemon, bael, guava, pear, apricot, muskmelon, papaya, passion fruit,
peach, plum, mulberry, raspberry, strawberry, grapefruit, etc. The maximum
permissible limit of preservative in squash is 350 ppm of sulphur dioxide or 600 ppm
of benzoic acid. Potassium metabisulphite is not added in dark coloured fruits as it may
bleach the anthocyanin pigments. In such beverages sodium benzoate is used.
Commercially available squash contain 40 to 50 percent sugar and around 1.0 percent
acid. They are diluted in the ratio of 1:4 before consumption. There is another category
of dilutable beverage called crush. As per FSSAI guidelines, crush must contain not less
than 25 percent fruit content and 55 percent TSS. Mostly, the community of citrus fruits
and pineapple are used for crush manufacture. Syrup is a type of fruit beverage that
contains at least 25 percent fruit juice or pulp and not less than 65 percent TSS. It also
contains 1.25-1.5 percent acid and diluted before consumption. The syrups from rose
petals, almond, mint, khus, sandal and kewra are quite popular.

47
CHAPTER 6

ALCOHOLIC BEVERAGES

These are simply beverages that contain some percentage of ethyl alcohol between 1%
-75%. It is either obtained by fermentation of sugar based foods or the distillation of
fermented products e.g. spirits, liqueur, beer, cider and wine, local or traditional African
beer (burukutu). Alcohol is the liquid made by the fermentation or distillation of
ethanol (the sugar present in intoxicating drinks). It is also used as fuel and in
thermometer. Alcohol is obtained in two forms name:

1. Fermentation: The sugar in fruit or grain is converted into alcohol by the

action of bacteria. Carbon dioxide a bi-product is retained for fizzy drinks
like beer and champagne.
2. Distillation: The fermented mash of fruit or grain is heated. Alcohol which
is evaporates at a lower temperatures then water is trapped and condensed
to a liquid by cooling. Pure distilled alcohol has no colour, taste or smell
and it is used in fortifying other beverages such as liqueurs

48
Alcoholic Beverages Includes:
 Spirits
 Liqueurs
 Beer
 Cider and wine
 Local traditional beer e.g. pito, burukuku.

6.1 SPIRITS: It’s any liquid containing a significant amount of distilled ethanol.
They contain drinkable alcohol such as esters, volatile acids or organic
compounds obtained from distillation. Its classification is based on the source
from where they get the sugar to convert into alcohol such as grains (barley,
maize, rye, corn) for making whisky and liqueurs, vegetables (potatoes) vodka,
fruit (sugar cane, grape, apricot, juniper berries (rum, brandy, liqueurs, gin,
bitters, etc.).

Table 5- Alcoholic beverages belonging to the category of spirit

Alcoholic Base Material Alcohol Remark

Beverage Content
Brandy Fruit juices 35-60% Normally consumed after-dinner,
mainly grapes preferred for medicinal purpose.
Aged in oak barrels.
Rum Molasses or 40-55% Dark Coloured and quite popular
sugarcane in Caribbean nations. Aged for not
juices less than three years.
Gin Wheat and rye 37.5-50% Flavoured and not aged. Mostly
may contain consumed with citrus juices.
herbs
Whisky Cereal (barley, 40-55% Most famous one is “Scotch
rye) Whisky”.
Vodka Malted cereals, 38-40% Popular in Russian federation
potatoes, etc. countries, two variants white and
flavoured Vodka.
Cider Apple juice and 2-7% Characterized by acidic-alcoholic
other taste.
temperate
fruits

6.2 Brandy: They are spirits distilled from fermented juice of grape or other
fruits.
6.3 Gin: It is produced from cereal like maize or rye. It is also from barley and
flavoured with jumper berries and coriander seeds.

49
 6.4 Vodka: It is a very pure still spirit which is purified by passing it through
charcoal to remove aroma and flavor. It is colourless and flavourless. e.g.
Smirnoff red, blue, black, silver, citrus, raspberry.
6.5 Whisky: It is a spirit made from the fermented mash of cereals such as maize,
malted barley and rye and is aged in wood.
6.6 Rum: It is made from fermented by product of sugar cane. It is popular in
countries where sugar canes are many. It is classified into white and dark rum.
White rum is made without adding any colour eg Bacardi rum while dark rum is
the same as white rum except that a highly refined sugarcane syrup or caramel
is added to it to give it colour and flavore.g Bacardi dark rum, etc.
6.7 CIDERS: This is an alcoholic beverages obtained through the fermentation of
apple juice or mixture of apple juice and 25% pear juice respectively. e.g.
Liqueurs, draught, etc.
6.8 BEER: Beer is a potable alcoholic beverage fermented from barley malt and
flavoured with hops which is a dried ripe flower of the mulberry or nettle
family. The alcoholic content in a beer ranges from 3% to 5%. e.g. Lager beer,
Ale, Draft beer, Stout, etc.

3. It is the world‟s third most consumed beverage. Beer is prepared by

fermenting the “wort” (soluble liquid of barley malt digest) with
appropriate yeast to attain an alcohol level in the range of 4-8 percent.
Apart from alcohol, beer is also characterized by the “effervescence” i.e.
foam which is produced by carbon dioxide and bitterness. The bitterness
and aroma in beer is contributed by the hops (Humuluslupulus) solids as
αiso-acids and other polyphenols. There are many variants of beer but two
are more popular. These are called as “Lager” beer which is fermented by
bottom yeast i.e. Saccharomyces pastorianus at lower temperature (7-12
degree C) for longer period, while the “Ale” is manufactured by using top
fermenting yeast i.e. Saccharomyces cerevisiae at relatively higher
temperature (18-25degree C).

6.9 LIQUEURS: They are sweetened and flavoured spirit. It is flavoured with
black currants, caraway, citrus nutmeg, cinnamon, kernels of almond, etc.

PRODUCTION OF LIQUERURS

Heat/Infusion method: This is when herbs, peels, roots are being used as heat can
extract their oil, flavours and aromas.

Cold/Maceration method: This is best obtained when soft fruits are to provide flavours
and aromas.

TYPES OF LIQUEURS
50
 1. Bailey’s Irish cream: This is a popular liqueur with coffee and honey or
chocolate and cream colour.
2. Comtreau: It is a clear liqueur produced by using orange/brandy as flavour
and spirit based.

3. Malibu: It is a clear liqueur in which coconut/rum is used for flavor.

4. Maraschino: This is a clear liqueur which is produced by using maraschino

cherry for flavor and spirit based made in Italy.

5. Tia Maria: This is brown in colour. Coffee/rum is used as flavor.

51
 6.10 WINE: Wine is an alcoholic beverage obtained from the fermentation of
freshly gathered grapes. It has been in existence since over 6000 years and is
produced in most parts of the world.

CLASSIFICATION OF WINE/TYPES

1. TABLE /STILL/LIGHT WINE: This is the largest category and its alcoholic
strength is between 7% to 14%. e.g. red wine, white wine and rose wine.
2. White wine: It is produced from white grape juice. It is usually fermented
away from the skin.

52
 3. Red wine: It is produces from fermented grapes in which the skin is sed. It
is a dry wine and it’s served at room temperature.

iii. Rose wine: It can be produced from three ways such as through black grape
fermentation with the skin for 48 hours, by mixing red and white wine together or by
pressing the grapes so that the colour is extracted.

2. SPARKLING WINE: They are given sparkling effect treatment. These are
wines with carbon dioxide to make it fizzy. It is achieved by pressure or re-
fermentation when the carbon dioxide is captured in the bottle. They are
referred to as effervescent as a result of its second fermentation in the
bottle. e.g. Champagne.

3. FORTIFIED WINE: They are strengthened by the addition of alcohol either

during or after fermentation. This increases its alcoholic content from 14%
to 24%. e.g. Sherry, Marsala, Malaga, Madeira etc.

4. AROMATIZED WINE: They are produced by flavouring a simple basic wine

with a blend of ingredient e.g., vermouth of different types, dubonnet. They
are popular in aperitifs.

FACTORS AFFECTING THE TASTE AND QUALITY OF WINE

1. Climate and micro climate.

2. Nature of the soil and sub soil.

iii. Vine family and grape species.

1. Method of cultivation and viticulture.

2. Composition of the grapes.
3. Yeast and fermentation.

vii. Methods of wine making (vinification).

viii. Lack of the year (vintage).

1. Ageing and maturing process.

2. Method of shipping and transportation.
3. Storage temperature.

STEPS IN WINE PRODUCTION

53
 1. PICKING/ HARVESTING: The matured and ripe grapes are harvested for
the production of the wine.

2. SORTING/WEIGHING/REMOVAL OF STALKS: The harvest grape are

gathered and sorted our according to colour and quality. Damaged or
poorly grown ones are discarded.

3. PRESSING/CRUSHING: After sorting, the grapes are weighed accordingly

and crushed to extract the juice. To make white wines, the skin is not
included during crushing and fermentation. While for red wine, the skin is
included when crushing. This process is either done manually by the feet or
mechanically.

4. SULPHURING: Sulphur dioxide is added fairly early in fermentation process

to prevent air from oxidizing the juice and converting the alcohol into
vinegar.

5. FERMENTATION: This is the conversion of the natural sugar in the grape

into alcohol and carbon-dioxide. This takes place with the action of yeast. In
hot climate, fermentation can be over in just one week while in cold
weather it takes longer time. Fermentation is done in a stainless still vat by
adding wine yeast known as (Saccharomyces Ellipsoideus) to fresh grape
juice to convert the natural sugar in the grape to ethyl alcohol.

6. MATURATION: The wine is allowed to mature in a cask or other container

for several months to improve its flavor. This is called
MATURATION/AGEING. As the wine matures, it evaporates so thecask
must be topped with the same wine to avoid air from getting into it. Wine
can also be matured in bottles.

54
FAULTS IN WINE PRODUCTION

1. Corked wine: This is caused by diseased corks by the action of bacteria

or excessively bottle age.

2. Secondary fermentation: This happens when traces of sugar and yeast

are left in the bottle giving the wine an unpleasant prickly taste.

3. Cloudiness: It’s caused by suspended matter in wine.

4. Foreign contamination: Its splintered or powered glass caused by

bottling machinery or re-used bottle.

5. Maderization or oxidation: It is caused by bad storage leading to too

much exposure to air.

6. Acetification: Occurs when the wine is over exposed to air thereby giving
it a sour taste.

7. Excess sulphur-dioxide (SO2): Sulphur-dioxide is used as preservative,

however excess of it can spoils the wine.

55
Mead
Mead is an alcoholic drink made by fermenting honey with water, sometimes with
various fruits, spices, grains, or hops. The alcoholic content of mead may range from as
low as 3% ABV to more than 20%. The defining characteristic of mead is that the
majority of the drink's fermentable sugar is derived from honey. Mead can also be
referred to as "honeywine."
Pulque
Pulque is the Mesoamerican fermented drink made from the "honey water"
of maguey, Agave americana. Pulque can be distilled to
produce tequila or mescal Mezcal.
Rice wine
Sake, huangjiu, mijiu, and cheongju are popular examples of East Asian rice wine.

6.11 Distilled beverages

Distilled beverages (also called liquors or spirit drinks) are alcoholic drinks produced
by distilling (i.e., concentrating by distillation) ethanol produced by means
of fermenting grain, fruit, or vegetables. Unsweetened, distilled, alcoholic drinks that
have an alcohol content of at least 20% ABV are called spirits.[18] For the most common
distilled drinks, such as whiskey (or whisky) and vodka, the alcohol content is around
40%. The term hard liquor is used in North America to distinguish distilled drinks from
undistilled ones (implicitly
weaker). Vodka, gin, baijiu, shōchū, soju, tequila, whiskey, brandy and rum areexamples
of distilled drinks. Distilling concentrates the alcohol and eliminates some of
the congeners. Freeze distillation concentrates ethanol along with methanol and fusel
alcohols (fermentation by-products partially removed by distillation) in applejack.
Fortified wine is wine, such as port or sherry, to which a distilled beverage
(usually brandy) has been added. Fortified wine is distinguished from spirits made
from wine in that spirits are produced by means of distillation, while fortified wine is
wine that has had a spirit added to it. Many different styles of fortified wine have been
developed, including port, sherry, madeira, marsala, commandaria, and the aromatized
wine vermouth.

6.12Rectified spirit

Rectified spirit, also called "neutral grain spirit", is alcohol which has been purified by
means of "rectification" (i.e. repeated distillation). The term neutral refers to the spirit's
lack of flavor that would have been present if the mash ingredients had been distilled to
56
a lower level of alcoholic purity. Rectified spirit also lacks any flavoring added to it after
distillation (as is done, for example, with gin). Other kinds of spirits, such as whiskey,
(or whisky) are distilled to a lower alcohol percentage to preserve the flavor of the
[Link] spirit is a clear, colorless, flammable liquid that may contain as much as
95% ABV. It is often used for medicinal purposes. It may be a grain spirit or it may be
made from other plants. It is used in mixed drinks, liqueurs, and tinctures, and also as a
household solvent.

6.13Amount of Use

Alcohol consumption per person in 2016. Consumption of alcohol is measured in liters

of pure alcohol per person aged 15 or older.
The average number of people who drink as of 2016 was 39% for males and 25% for
females (2.4 billion people in total). Females on average drink 0.7 drinks per day while
males drink 1.7 drinks per day. The rates of drinking varies significantly in different
areas of the world.

6.14Apéritifs and digestifs

An apéritif is any alcoholic beverage usually served before a meal to stimulate
the appetite, while a digestif is any alcoholic beverage served after a meal for the stated
purpose of improving digestion. Fortified wine, liqueurs, and dry champagne are
common apéritifs. Because apéritifs are served before dining, they are usually dry
rather than sweet. One example is Cinzano, a brand of vermouth. Digestifs include
brandy, fortified wines and herb-infused spirits (Drambuie).

6.15Consumption In India-
57
 Alcohol consumption among both men and women is higher in rural India than in
urban India, the National Family Health Survey-5 (NFHS-5), 2019-21 has found.
Overall, 1% of women aged 15 and over drink alcohol, compared to 19% of men
in the same age group. This breaks up into 1.6% (rural) and 0.6% (urban) among
women, and 19.9% and 16.5% respectively among men.
Of all states, Arunachal Pradesh has the highest proportion of both men (53%) and
women (24%) who drink alcohol. Among women, Arunachal Pradesh is followed by
Sikkim (16%); among men, it is followed by Telangana (43%). Besides Arunachal and
Telangana, alcohol consumption among men is higher (40% and above) in upper
Brahmaputra region of Assam, districts in Jharkhand and Bastar region of Chhattisgarh,
and the Chhota Nagpur region of Jharkhand and Odisha.
The level of alcohol consumption among men is 30-40% in parts of Chhattisgarh,
Uttarakhand, Manipur, Meghalaya, Tripura, and a few districts of Odisha. It is below
30% in the remaining parts of India, and the lowest in Lakshadweep (0.4%). Alcohol
consumption is more common among those from the Scheduled Tribes than from any
other caste/tribe groups; this is true of both women (6% consumption among STs) and
men (33%). Among religious groups, the proportion of men who drink alcohol is higher
among those belonging to “other religions” (47%) than among those belonging to the
Hindu (20%), Muslim (5%), Christian (28%), Sikh (23.5%), Buddhist/Neo-Buddhist
(24.5%) and Jain(5.9%) religions.

58
59
CHAPTER 7

STATISTICAL DATA

7.1 INDIA’S CONSUMPTION_-

GlobalData’s India Quarterly Beverage Tracker Q2-23 covering soft drinks, dairy drinks,
hot drinks and alcoholic drinks is an essential tool for keeping up-to-date with the
latest industry performance and developments on a quarterly basis, covering –

– Top line consumption volumes for Q2-2023 vs Q2-2022, moving annual totals (MAT),
full year 2022 provisional data and 2023 forecasts for all beverage categories.
– Carbonates consumption data for Q2-2023 vs Q2-2022, moving annual totals (MAT),
full year 2022 provisional data and 2023 forecasts split by regular vs low calorie, and
key flavor.
– An economic mood indicator with an at a glance assessment of industry confidence
levels, private label performance vs brands and price trends.
– Insightful and valuable analysis of the drivers behind the latest quarterly trends and
assumptions for full year 2023.

India Beverages Market Segmentation by Categories

60
The key categories in the India beverages market are soft drinks, hot drinks, dairy and
soy drinks and milk alternatives, and alcoholic drinks. Hot drinks dominated the
beverage market in Q4 2022.

Hot drinks: The hot drinks category is further segmented into hot coffee, hot tea, and
other hot drinks. Within the segment, hot tea had the highest volume in Q4 2022.

Dairy and soy drinks and milk alternatives: They can be further segmented into
condensed milk, drinking yogurt, evaporated milk, fermented milk, flavored milk, grain,
nut, rice and seed (GNRS) milk

alternative drinks, soymilk, and white milk. Within the segment, white milk had the
highest volume in Q4 2022.

Soft drinks: They can be further segmented into packaged water, enhanced water,
flavored water, carbonates, juice, nectars, still drinks, squash/syrups, fruit powders,
iced/RTD tea drinks, iced/RTD coffee drinks, sports drinks, energy drinks, and
bulk/HOD water. Within the category, the packaged water segment had the highest
volume in Q4 2022.

Alcoholic drinks: They can be further segmented into beer, cider, flavored alcoholic
beverages, fortified wine, brandy, gin and genever, liqueurs, rum, sparkling wine,
specialty spirits, still wine, tequila and mezcal, vodka, and whisky. Within the segment,
whisky had the highest volume in Q4 2022.

India Beverages Market Analysis by Categories, Q4 2022 (%)

India Beverages Market Report Overview

Time Period Q4 2022

61
Consumption Volume (Q4 2022) 49.66 billion liters (BL)
Soft Drinks, Hot Drinks, Dairy and Soy Drinks an
Key Categories
Alternatives, and Alcoholic Drinks

7.2 WORLD’S CONSUMPTION –

Objective

To quantify global, regional, and national levels of SSB, fruit juice, and milk intake by
age and sex in adults over age 20 in 2010.

Methods

We identified, obtained, and assessed data on intakes of these beverages in adults, by

age and sex, from 193 nationally- or subnationally-representative diet surveys
worldwide, representing over half the world’s population. We also extracted data
relevant to milk, fruit juice, and SSB availability for 187 countries from annual food
balance information collected by the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization.
We developed a hierarchical Bayesian model to account for measurement
incomparability, study representativeness, and sampling and modeling uncertainty,
and to combine and harmonize nationally representative dietary survey data and food
availability data.

Results

In 2010, global average intakes were 0.58 (95%UI: 0.37, 0.89) 8 oz servings/day for
SSBs, 0.16 (0.10, 0.26) for fruit juice, and 0.57 (0.39, 0.83) for milk. There was
significant heterogeneity in consumption of each beverage by region and age. Intakes of
SSB were highest in the Caribbean (1.9 servings/day; 1.2, 3.0); fruit juice consumption
was highest in Australia and New Zealand (0.66; 0.35, 1.13); and milk intake was
highest in Central Latin America and parts of Europe (1.06; 0.68, 1.59). Intakes of all
three beverages were lowest in East Asia and Oceania. Globally and within regions, SSB
consumption was highest in younger adults; fruit juice consumption showed little
relation with age; and milk intakes were highest in older adults.

Conclusions

Our analysis highlights the enormous spectrum of beverage intakes worldwide, by

country, age, and sex. These data are valuable for highlighting gaps in dietary
surveillance, determining the impacts of these beverages on global health, and
targeting dietary policy.

Figures
62
63
64
65
66
67
Citation: Singh GM, Micha R, Khatibzadeh S, Shi P, Lim S, Andrews KG, et al. (2015)
Global, Regional, and National Consumption of Sugar-Sweetened Beverages, Fruit

68
Juices, and Milk: A Systematic Assessment of Beverage Intake in 187 Countries. PLoS
ONE 10(8): e0124845. [Link]
Editor: Michael Müller, University of East Anglia, UNITED KINGDOM
Received: June 19, 2014; Accepted: March 18, 2015; Published: August 5, 2015
Copyright: © 2015 Singh et al. This is an open access article distributed under the
terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use,
distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source
are credited
Data Availability: All relevant data are within the paper and its Supporting
Information files.
Funding: Dr. Singh was supported by a T32 Training Grant in Academic Nutrition
(DK007703) from the National Institute of Diabetes, Digestive and Kidney Diseases and
a K99/R00 Pathway to Independence Award (1K99HL124321) from the National
Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute. Initial data collection for this work was supported by a
grant from the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation to the 2010 Global Burden of Diseases
study. The sponsors of the study had no role in study design, data collection, data
analysis, data interpretation, or writing of the report.
Competing interests: The authors would like to provide the following disclosures:
[Link] reports research grants from GlaxoSmithKline, Sigma Tau, Pronova, and
the National Institutes of Health for a completed investigator-initiated, not-for-profit,
randomized clinical trial of fish oil supplements for the prevention of post-surgical
complications; ad hoc travel reimbursement and/or honoraria for one-time scientific
presentations or reviews on diet and cardiometabolic diseases from Bunge, Pollock
Institute, Quaker Oats, and Life Sciences Research Organization (each modest); ad hoc
consulting fees from McKinsey Health Systems Institute, Foodminds, and Nutrition
Impact (each modest); Unilever North America Scientific Advisory Board membership
(modest); and royalties from UpToDate, for an online chapter on fish oil (modest).
Harvard University has filed a provisional patent application, that has been assigned to
Harvard University, listing [Link] as a co-inventor to the US Patent and
Trademark Office for use of trans-palmitoleic acid to prevent and treat insulin
resistance, type 2 diabetes, and related conditions (Patent name: “Use of trans-
palmitoleate in identifying and treating metabolic disease”; Patent number: 8,889,739).
All other authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest. This information does
not alter the authors' adherence to PLOS ONE policies on sharing data and materials.
Introduction

Sugar-sweetened beverages (SSBs), fruit juice, and milk are components of diet that
substantially affect health. SSB intake has been linked with weight gain, diabetes,
metabolic syndrome, and dental caries [1–8]. Although moderate consumption of fruit
juice may be an important source of vitamins, minerals, and antioxidants, excessive
fruit juice consumption has been associated with weight gain and development of
dental caries [9–11]. Milk is an important source of vitamin D, calcium, protein, and
calories especially in children and the elderly, while high intakes have been linked with
incidence of prostate cancer [12,13].

69
Although beverage consumption substantially impacts health, few nationally-
representative studies on dietary intakes of SSBs, fruit juice, and milk are publically
available [14–18]. Of the existing data published on beverage consumption in countries
worldwide, no study has yet assessed global geographic, age, or time trends
comprehensively such that both within- and between-country comparisons can be
made. This paucity of comprehensive global estimates limits the ability to assess the
effects of beverage intakes on disease burdens and hinders evaluation of dietary
policies and interventions worldwide. Moreover, since age and sex are major
determinants of dietary patterns and their effects on disease, comparable information
on variation in SSB, fruit juice, and milk consumption by age and sex is vital for
effectively targeting health policy within countries.

To comparably quantify levels of consumption of these major non-alcoholic caloric

beverages, we systematically reviewed, compiled, and extracted national, mostly
individual-level data on the consumption of SSBs, fruit juice, and milk, from countries
around the world. We similarly assessed data on levels of calcium consumption
worldwide, given its relevance to milk intake. In addition, we extracted and assessed
data relevant to SSB, fruit juice, and milk annual availability in 187 countries from the
United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) food balance database [19].
We developed and applied statistical methods to address data comparability and
missingess in the beverage intake survey data, to combine individual-level beverage
intake data with country-level beverage availability data, and to quantify the combined
uncertainty from all data sources. We report comprehensive and comparable estimates
of global, regional, and national consumption patterns of SSBs, fruit juices, and milk, by
age and sex, in high, middle, and low-income countries.

Methods

This work was performed by the Nutrition and Chronic Diseases Expert Group
(NutriCoDE) as part of the 2010 Global Burden of Diseases, Injuries, and Risk Factors
(GBD) Study [20,21]. Our methods for identification, access, and selection of dietary
risk factors and data have been reported elsewhere [22–24]. Briefly, we performed
systematic searches to identify survey microdata on age- and sex-specific intakes of
SSBs, fruit juices, and milk from countries around the world between 1990 and 2010.
We assessed the sampling methods and diet assessment methods of all surveys
identified, and included only those with nationally- or subnationally-representative
samples and valid diet assessment methods. We extracted data from survey microdata
using standardized methods to ensure comparability across surveys. In addition, we
retrieved, assessed, and extracted annual data relevant to SSB, fruit juice, and milk
availability in each of 187 countries from FAO food availability data collected annually
between 1990 and 2010. Finally, we used hierarchical statistical modeling methods to
combine and harmonize food availability data with dietary intake data, to account for
different survey sampling methodologies and diet assessment methods, to estimate
missing dietary intake data in data-sparse countries, and to capture sampling and
modeling uncertainty. Using these methods, we were able to quantify consumption
70
levels of SSBs, fruit juices, and milk by age and sex in 187 countries worldwide over at
20 year period. Given its relevance to milk intake, calcium was also assessed
worldwide.

Identification of national beverage data

Between Mar 2008 and Sep 2010 we identified survey data on SSB, fruit juice, and milk
intake in adults (≥20 years of age), through systematic searches of multiple literature
databases including MEDLINE, Embase, CAB abstracts, WHOLIST (WHO library), and
SIGLE (grey literature database), hand-searches of reference lists, and direct contact
with authors [22]. We defined the beverage categories to correspond as closely as
possible to definitions used in published meta-analyses of their health effects [6,10,12],
as well as to incorporate definitions used in survey data that we collected from around
the world. Specifically, we defined SSBs as sugar-sweetened beverages containing over
50 kcal/8oz serving, including sodas, fruit drinks, sports/energy drinks, pre-sweetened
iced tea, and homemade sugar-sweetened beverages such as frescas. Fruit juices were
defined as beverages containing 100% fruit or vegetable juice with no added
sweeteners. Milk included both skim, lowfat, and whole milk and other dairy drinks.
Calcium intake was assessed as total dietary intake of calcium, excluding supplements.

Our direct contact with experts worldwide (Corresponding Members of NutriCoDE)

proved to be the most fruitful data source and we developed a protocol and timeline for
requesting primary de-identified (fully anonymized) data in a standardized format.
Surveys were included if they were from a population-based sample (e.g. primarily
nationally- or subnationally-representative populations with no evidence of selection
bias) and if the data were based on a standard diet assessment tool. If no individual-
level survey data on dietary intakes could be identified for a country, we evaluated
other sources of data, such as household consumption and expenditure surveys [22].

We also identified country-level data relevant to SSB, fruit juice, and milk availability in
all 187 nations of interest using food balance data collected by the FAO for every year
between 1980 and 2010. These food balance data measure the total per-capita annual
availability of particular foods for human consumption, taking into consideration
agricultural production, imports, and exports in each country. While the FAO does
collect information on milk availability in all 187 countries, it does not collect data on
the availability of SSBs or fruit juices. Since SSBs comprise a major source of dietary
added sugars [5,25,26] we used FAO total sugar availability data as a proxy for
information on SSB country-level availability. Similarly, since roughly 40% of fresh fruit
available per capita is converted into fruit juice[27], we used FAO fruit availability data
as a proxy for information on fruit juice availability in all 187 countries.

Extraction and standardization of beverage data

We used standardized data retrieval methods which have been described elsewhere
[21,23,24]. From each dietary survey obtained from Corresponding Members,
published literature, or other sources, we extracted data on mean and standard
71
deviation of intake of SSBs, fruit juice, and milk, as well as information on survey
location, time period, representativeness, sampling design, and sample size into a
standardized electronic extraction spreadsheet. We extracted uniform metrics and
units of beverage intake from all surveys to the extent possible. We assessed data
plausibility and checked for extraction errors. Quality of diet assessment methods used
in each survey were assessed using methods described previously [22]. We used
consistent methods to analyze and aggregate all survey data to ensure comparability
across surveys. For nationally-representative survey microdata, we included sampling
weights, primary sampling unit, and stratum in our analyses, when available. In surveys
employing multiple 24 hr diet recalls, we quantified mean intakes by averaging all days
of dietary assessment (usually 2 days), and we used a corrected population standard
deviation (SD) to account for within- versus between-person variation [28]. Dietary
intakes were standardized using the residual method [28] to 2000 kcal/d, thereby
producing more comparable estimates across age, sex, and country.

Pooling and statistical analysis of beverage data

Although we used systematic data retrieval and standardization methods as described

above, the data we extracted from national/subnational surveys of individual-level
dietary intakes were not always comparable, varying in representativeness, urban or
rural coverage, age groups, dietary instruments, or dietary metrics. Furthermore, the
data we extracted from FAO food balance sheets accounted for overall availability of
the beverages of interest at the country level and not individual-level consumption of
these beverages. To combine individual-level beverage intake data with country-level
beverage availability data, to address issues of data incomparability, and to capture the
uncertainty in estimates of beverage intake due to measurement error, sampling
uncertainty, and modeling uncertainty, we used established age-integrating Bayesian
hierarchical modeling methods [23,24,29]. This model estimated the mean
consumption of each beverage and its uncertainty for each age-sex-country-year
subgroup. Importantly, the model harmonized FAO food availability data with intake
data in countries that had both types of data and calibrated FAO data to more closely
approximate intake data in countries that had only availability data[30]. For each
beverage, the primary model inputs were survey-level quantitative data, including
country-, time-, age-, and sex- specific consumption levels; data on the numbers of
subjects in each stratum; survey-level indicator covariates for sampling
representativeness, dietary assessment method, and type of dietary metric; country-
level year-specific data relevant to availability of that beverage from the FAO; and
country, region (21 regions), and super-region (7 groupings of regions) random effects.

Additional details about the model are presented in Appendix A in S1 File. To ensure
that pooled estimates give weight to the best available data, the model included
additional offset and variance components to account for differences between national
vs. subnational surveys, individual-level vs. household-level dietary data, primary vs.
secondary dietary metrics, and optimal vs. suboptimal dietary assessment methods in
each case giving greater weight to the preferred characteristic. Models were fit using a
72
randomized Markov Chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) algorithm based on the Adaptive
Metropolis step function. Models were assessed for convergence of MCMC iterations
and validated using goodness-of-fit tests as described elsewhere [23,24,29]. Qualitative
evaluation of model estimates for beverage consumption levels was also conducted by
comparing the estimates with known high-quality data and by contacting subject-
matter experts to assess the plausibility of model estimates.

Our modeling approach quantified uncertainty in beverage consumption estimates as

completely as possible, including sampling and measurement uncertainty in dietary
intakes in national survey data, uncertainty associated with suboptimal metrics,
subnational samples, or household-level surveys, and uncertainty associated with
incomplete global coverage of national individual-level survey data. To quantify the
combined uncertainty from the aforementioned sources, we used Monte Carlo
simulations, drawing 1,000 times from the posterior distribution of each exposure for
each age, sex, country, and year. We computed the mean exposure from the 1000
draws, and the 95% uncertainty intervals were calculated as the 2.5th and 97.5th
percentiles of the 1000 draws. Absolute and relative difference in exposure between
1990 and 2010 was calculated at the draw level to account for the full spectrum of
uncertainty. Using these methods, we quantified the consumption levels (mean and
uncertainty intervals) of SSBs, milk, and fruit juice among men and women in seven age
groups in 187 countries in 1990 and 2010.

In addition, we analyzed patterns in beverage consumption stratified by BMI and

country income level. We analyzed the cross-country age- and sex-specific correlations
of the three beverages with country-, age-, and sex-specific BMI data obtained through
the Global Burden of Diseases, Injuries and Risk Factors 2010 Study [31]. Country
income-level classifications were obtained from the World Bank, and were developed
using the World Bank Atlas method [32]: low-income countries are those with per-
capita gross national income (GNI) (in U.S. dollars) ≤ $1045 in 2013; middle-income
countries have per-capita GNI > $1045 and < $12,746; high-income countries are those
with per-capita GNI per capita ≥ $12,746. Lower-middle-income and upper-middle-
income economies are separated at per-capita GNI of $4,125. All analyses were
performed in Python or R.

Results

Global survey data on individual-level SSB consumption were derived from 62 surveys,
including 51 countries and 612,000 individuals, and representing 63% of the world’s
adult population (Table 1). 88.2% of the survey data on SSB consumption were
nationally-representative, and 72.1% were from low- and middle-income countries.
Data on fruit juice intake were from 56 surveys, 86.7% of which were nationally-
representative. These data on fruit juice consumption included information on 569,000
individuals from 46 countries worldwide, representing 58% of the world’s population.
Milk consumption data included 75 surveys worldwide, based on information from 77
countries and 689,000 individuals, with 79.2% of the data representative at the
national level and 53.4% of the data from low- and middle-income countries. Country-
73
level FAO data relevant to the annual availability of each of the three beverages were
available for all 187 countries in our analysis for every year between 1980 and 2010
(Table 1).

Table 1. Availability and characteristics of individual-level dietary survey data

and U.N. Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) food availability data used to
estimate sugar-sweetened beverage, fruit juice, and milk consumption levels by
world region.
[Link]
Global distribution of sugar-sweetened beverage consumption

In 2010, global SSB consumption in adults over age 20 averaged 0.58 (95%UI: 0.37,
0.89) 8 oz servings/day (Table 2). SSB consumption was highest in men aged 20–39
(1.04, 95%UI: 0.63, 1.7 servings/day), and lowest in women aged 60 and over (0.34,
95%UI: 0.20, 0.53 servings/day). In general, SSB consumption was higher in upper-
middle income countries (0.80, 95%UI: 0.51, 1.22 servings/day) and lower-middle
income countries (0.59, 95%UI: 0.34, 0.95 servings/day) than in high income (0.51,
95%UI: 0.37, 0.71 servings/day) or low income (0.35, 95%UI: 0.20, 0.56 servings/day)
countries.

Table 2. Mean consumption of SSBs, fruit juice, milk, and calcium by age, sex, and
country income level.
[Link]
There was also large heterogeneity across geographical regions: almost a 10-fold
difference between highest and lowest regional intake levels. Of 21 world regions, SSB
consumption was highest in the Caribbean (1.9, 95%CI: 1.2, 3.0 servings/day), and
lowest in East Asia (0.20, 95%CI: 0.16, 0.25 servings/day). SSB consumption was also
high in Central Latin America, high-income North America, and Andean Latin America,
with average intakes of over 0.8 servings per day of SSBs (Fig 1A and Table C in S1
File).

Fig 1. Consumption of non-alcoholic caloric beverages in 187 countries

worldwide.
A) SSBs, B) Fruit juice, C) Milk. Mean country-level beverage consumption levels in
servings/day are represented by the color scales in each panel. Note that the scale
range differs in each panel.
[Link]

74
Global distribution of fruit juice consumption

Adults worldwide in 2010 consumed an average of 0.16 (95%UI: 0.10, 0.26)

servings/day of fruit juice, with greatest intake in women aged 20–39 (0.23, 95%UI:
0.13, 0.37) (Table 2). Fruit juice consumption on average increased with country
income level, highest in high-income countries (0.25, 95%UI: 0.18, 0.36), and lowest in
low-income countries (0.03, 95%UI: 0.02, 0.06).

Across geographic regions, fruit juice intake ranged from 0.66 (95%UI: 0.36, 1.13)
servings/day to 0.013 (95%UI: 0.011, 0.017) servings/day, highest in Australasia and
lowest in East Asia. Adults in Australasia, high-income North America, Central Latin
America, and Andean Latin America consumed over a third of a serving per day of fruit
juice, and adults in South Asia and East Asia consumed less than a quarter of a serving
per day (Table C in S1 File).

Global distributions of milk consumption and calcium intake

Milk consumption among adults averaged 0.57 (95%UI: 0.39, 0.83) servings/day
globally and was on average highest in older adults than in younger adults: 0.68
(95%UI: 0.39, 0.90) servings/day in women age 60 and over and 0.51 (95%UI: 0.33,
0.76) servings/day in men aged 20–39 (Table 2). Adults in wealthier countries typically
drank more milk than in poorer countries (high income: 0.72, 95%UI: 0.55, 0.95; upper-
middle income: 0.72, 95%UI: 0.48, 1.05; lower-middle income: 0.48, 95%UI: 0.30, 0.74;
low-income: 0.30, 95%UI: 0.18, 0.47 servings/day).

Across 21 world regions, Central Latin America was the region with highest milk intake
(1.06, 95%UI: 0.68, 1.59 servings/day), and milk consumption also exceeded three-
quarters of a serving in Europe and Southern Sub-Saharan Africa. Adults in East Asia
and Oceania consumed the least milk, less than a quarter of a serving per day (Table C
in S1 File).

Calcium intake was highly correlated with milk consumption in 2010 (r = 0.71), with
highest levels in Western Europe (911, 95%UI: 824, 1009 mg/day) and U.S/Canada
(872, 95%UI: 828, 918 mg/day), lowest levels in Eastern Sub-Saharan Africa (441,
95%UI: 348, 554) and a global average of 629 (95%UI: 527, 747) mg/day.

National distributions of beverage consumption

SSBs.

Across 187 countries, Trinidad and Tobago had the highest average consumption of
SSBs, at 2.5 (95%UI: 1.5, 4.0) servings/day, and adults in Barbados, Suriname, Cuba,
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, the Dominican Republic, and Grenada drank over 2
servings/day of SSBs (Fig 1A and Table C in S1 File). China had the lowest levels of SSB
consumption (0.05, 95%UI: 0.04, 0.06 servings/day), and SSB intake levels in North
Korea and Azerbaijan were similarly low. Adults in the U.S. had the 26th-highest

75
consumption of SSBs out of 187 countries, averaging 1.0 (95%UI: 0.9, 1.2)
servings/day.

Fruit juice.

Fruit juice consumption was highest in New Zealand (0.83, 95%UI: 0.44, 1.44
servings/day), and also exceeded three-quarters of a serving/day in Colombia (Fig
1B and Table B in S1 File). Adults in Eritrea, Burkina Faso, China, and Togo all had very
low fruit juice consumption, close to zero servings/day. In the United States, adults on
average drank about a third of a serving of fruit juice per day (0.36, 95%UI: 0.31, 0.41),
ranking 21st of 187 countries worldwide.

Milk.

Adults in Sweden and Iceland consumed the most milk in 2010, at 1.6 (95%UI: 1.4, 1.8)
servings/day, and adults in Costa Rica, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Finland, and Sri Lanka
also consumed over 1.3 servings/day on average (Fig 1C and Table B in S1 File). North
Korea, and Indonesia had the lowest levels of milk consumption at less than 0.05
servings/day. In the United States, milk consumption among adults averaged 0.69
(95%UI: 0.61, 0.77) servings/day, ranking 64th out of 187 countries. Calcium intake
followed similar patterns to milk intake and was highest in Finland and Iceland, where
adults consumed over 1000 mg/day, and lowest in Mozambique and Malawi, where
consumption was below 325 mg/day.

Age, sex, and time trends in beverage consumption

SSBs.

SSB consumption generally followed an inverse age gradient, highest in adults under
age 40, and lowest in adults over age 60 (Fig 2A and Table 2). There was a steep inverse
age gradient in regions in Latin America and the Caribbean and in high-income North
America, which was attenuated in regions of lower SSB consumption, such as East and
South Asia By age and sex, regional consumption of SSBs was highest in men aged 20–
39 in the Caribbean at 3.4 (95%UI: 2.0, 5.6) servings/day (Table C in S1 File). Men and
women under age 60 in the Caribbean and Central Latin America also consumed over
1.5 servings/day of SSBs. Regional intake of SSBs was lowest in women over age 60 in
East Asia (0.12, 95%UI: 0.09, 0.15 servings/day).

76
Fig 2. Global non-alcoholic caloric beverage consumption in 21 regions by age.
A) SSBs, B) Fruit juice, C) Milk. Consumption levels are shown in four age groups for
each region and each region is color-coded as shown in the legend.
[Link]
At the country level, in 2010 men aged 20–29 in Trinidad and Tobago (5.1, 95%UI: 2.9,
8.7 servings/day) consumed the most SSBs in the world, and women over age 80 in
China consumed the least (0.026, 95%CI: 0.022, 0.031 servings/day) (Table B in S1
File). The cross-country correlation between SSB consumption and mean body-mass
index (BMI) also followed an inverse age gradient, with strongest correlation in adults
under age 45, and weakest correlation in in adults over age 65 (Fig 3). Between 1990
and 2010, SSB consumption increased in several countries in Latin America and the
Caribbean and Southeast Asia, however, at the regional level these changes were not
statistically significant (Fig A in S1 File).

77
Fig 3. Regional age and time trends in SSB consumption and BMI.
Each three-dimensional plot shows age, mean BMI, and mean SSB intake on the x-, y-,
and z-axes respectively. Each point represents one age group in one country and the
points are color-coded by super-region as shown in the legend. The top panel shows
data from 1990 and the bottom panel shows data from 2010.
[Link]
Fruit juice.

In contrast to SSBs, regional fruit juice consumption showed little relationship with age
(Fig 2B). Women aged 20–39 in Australasia had the highest levels of fruit juice intake,
at 0.92 (95%CI: 0.47, 1.7) servings/day and men over age 60 in East Asia had the
lowest, at 0.01 (0.01, 0.02) servings/day (Table C in S1 File).

78
Among all countries, fruit juice consumption was highest in women aged 20–29 in New
Zealand (1.3, 95%UI: 0.6, 2.3 servings/day) and close to zero in men and women of all
ages in Eritrea and Burkina Faso. Changes in fruit juice consumption between 1990 and
2010 were not statistically significant at the regional level (Fig A in S1 File) and showed
little relationship with mean BMI (Fig C in S1 File).

Milk.

Unlike either SSB or fruit juice consumption, milk intake in many regions was lower in
younger ages and higher in older ages (Fig 2C; Fig B in S1 File). At the regional level,
women over age 60 in Central Latin America drank the most milk (1.3, 95%UI: 0.8, 1.9
servings/day), and men under age 60 in East Asia drank the least (0.07, 95%UI: 0.05,
0.08 servings/day). As with milk consumption, calcium intake increased with age,
highest in women over age 60 in Western Europe and high-income North America, and
lowest in men under age 40 in Eastern Sub-Saharan Africa and East Asia (Table C in S1
File).

By country, milk intake was highest in the world in women over age 80 in Sweden and
Iceland (2.1, 95%UI: 1.8, 2.4 servings/day) and lowest in men under age 50 in North
Korea (0.03, 95%UI: 0.02, 0.06 servings/day) (Table B in S1 File). At the regional level,
changes in milk consumption between 1990 and 2010 were generally not statistically
significant.

Discussion

These results, based on collection and harmonization of both individual-level national

dietary intake surveys and national food availability data provide comprehensive
estimates of global, regional, and national consumption of SSBs, fruit juice, and milk, by
age and sex. These are the first quantitative estimates of non-alcoholic beverage
consumption in 187 countries of the world, and provide information that can inform
several areas in global health. First, these results identify gaps in current dietary data
around the world, indicating the need for improved dietary surveillance in particular
world regions. Second, these data provide the basis for quantitative assessment of the
impact of beverage intakes on disease burdens [33]. Third, this work provides
estimates of beverage intakes that will be useful baselines for measuring the efficacy of
policies and interventions related both to undernutrition and overnutrition.

In 2010, beverage consumption varied significantly by region. SSB intake was highest in
the Americas, particularly in parts of Latin America and the Caribbean, where both
commercial and homemade SSBs are widely consumed [34]. Fruit juice intake was
highest in Australia and New Zealand, perhaps reflecting high levels of production and
marketing in those countries [35]. Milk intake was highest in parts of Northern Europe
where dairy farming is widespread and dairy products have traditionally beendietary
mainstays [36,37]. Consumption of SSBs, fruit juices, and milk was particularly low in
East Asia, perhaps indicating the sociocultural importance of tea-drinking in that
region, the widespread consumption of soy-based beverages, as well as the high
79
prevalence of lactose-intolerance [38–41]. Milk consumption was also low in parts of
East Africa, which may reflect lower availability of milk [42], the prevalence of lactose-
intolerance [38], preferred intake of alternative traditional beverages[43], or other
cultural and macroeconomic factors that require further investigation.

Although there was little difference in beverage consumption levels and trends
between men and women, beverage consumption showed major variation by age, with
younger adults drinking more SSBs, and older adults drinking more milk. Higher
consumption of SSB in younger adults may stem from a generational effect, which may
in part be due to heavier marketing and advertising of SSBs to younger populations
[44,45]. Higher consumption of milk in older adults may be due to dietary guidelines
promoting milk consumption to increase calcium intake and prevent bone mineral loss,
especially among older women at risk for osteoporosis [26], or may also be due to a
generational effect.

Several strengths of this study can be noted. We conducted systematic searches and
contacted experts worldwide to collect, evaluate, and analyze global individual-level
data on consumption levels of SSBs, milk, and fruit juice. Data on dietary intakes of
these beverages were primarily from nationally-representative surveys and were age-,
sex-, and time-specific. We used standardized methods for data extraction and analysis
across surveys and beverage categories to ensure comparability of the dietary
information collected, and we assessed surveys for quality of measurement methods to
maximize data validity. In addition to individual-level information on beverage
consumption from national surveys, we also extracted data relevant to SSB, fruit juice,
and milk annual availability in each of the 187 countries in our analysis between 1990
and 2010 from FAO food balance sheets, and harmonized these data with intake data
using hierarchical modeling methods. Having both high-quality national survey data on
beverage intake, albeit with partial global coverage, in addition to beverage availability
data with complete global coverage provided as comprehensive data as possible for
estimating global levels of consumption of SSBs, fruit juices, and milk. We used
established hierarchical modelling methods to combine national survey data on
individual-level beverage intakes with country-level data relevant to beverage
availability, to address differences in dietary intake data representativeness and
measurement methodologies, and to capture uncertainty due to measurement error,
sampling uncertainty, and modeling uncertainty. The model was informed by time-
varying covariates, incorporated uncertainty in primary data, and was subjected to
external validation. These methods have allowed us to investigate in considerable
detail global trends in the consumption of three major beverage categories.

These results should be interpreted with some limitations in mind. We noted sparsity
of individual-level beverage intake data in particular geographical regions and time
periods despite our systematic approach to survey identification. In particular, fewer
data sources on individual-level intakes were available to inform estimates of beverage
consumption in 1990 than in 2010, and comparatively fewer data sources on
individual-level intakes were available in Oceania and much of Sub-Saharan Africa, and
80
some South Asian countries. However, we incorporated into our analysis data on
beverage availability from FAO food balance sheets for each of 187 countries in every
year between 1990 and 2010 so that estimates for every country in the analysis were
informed by data from multiple time points. Additionally, identification of areas of data
sparsity is important in itself for identifying gaps in global dietary surveillance and
planning future surveys. The food availability data used in this analysis are reported by
individual countries and may therefore heterogeneously capture availability from non-
commercial channels, which could be important sources of beverages in many
low/middle income countries[46]; however, we used established methods to
harmonize food availability data with measured intake levels to minimize bias due to
such factors. Some surveys with pre-categorized dietary data had slightly different
classifications of SSBs, fruit juices, and milk than those used in our study; however,
such cases were limited and our modeling approach downweighted studies using non-
optimal metrics in the model,. As this analysis was part of a larger initative that focused
on chronic disease-related dietary intakes (the GBD Nutrition and Chronic Diseases
Expert Group (NutriCoDE)), we did not collect data in children in this round of analysis,
although children are included in further data collection efforts that are currently
underway.

Our efforts to systematically collect, evaluate, and pool data from both individual-level
national dietary intake surveys and country-level food availability data have provided a
comprehensive assessment of the global consumption of SSBs, fruit juices, and milk.
Our results also highlight the sparsity of data on individual-level dietary intakes in
particular world regions, illustrating the need for improved future dietary surveillance
using validated, standardized, nationally-representative surveys. Given that carrying
out such surveys can be expensive and logistically challenging, our work also provides a
robust modeling methodology by which dietary intakes can be estimated in data-sparse
regions. These results are valuable for providing a detailed picture of global beverage
consumption levels, useful both in quantifying disease burdens related to beverage
intake and in framing health policies and interventions directed at reducing these
disease burdens.

REFERENCES

 Singh Pande Jain “Plant resource utilization palynology and biostatics” Rastogi
Publications; Unit II; Chapter 9 Page no. 109-118
81
  B.P Pandey “College Botany” S. Chand Publications; Unit VII; Chapter 37 Page no.
967-980; Kindle Edition
 [Link]
 [Link]
 //efaidnbmnnnibpcajpcglclefindmkaj/[Link]
library/pdf/FST-Paper-%20II%20Food%20Beverages-%[Link]
 [Link]
 chrome-
extension://efaidnbmnnnibpcajpcglclefindmkaj/[Link]
/assets/uploads/1/151/5179/et/25%[Link]
 [Link]
 [Link]
 chrome-
extension://efaidnbmnnnibpcajpcglclefindmkaj/[Link]
artoaj/pdf/[Link]
 [Link]
 chrome-
extension://efaidnbmnnnibpcajpcglclefindmkaj/[Link]
fault/files/slm/[Link]
 [Link]
 [Link]
coffee-economic-botany/56873
 [Link]
r.-sahu
 [Link]
 [Link]
market-analysis/

82