DP IB Analysis & Your notes

Approaches (AA): HL
Polynomial Functions
Contents
Polynomial Division
Factor & Remainder Theorem
Graphs & Roots of Polynomial Functions
Sum & Product of Roots of Polynomials

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 Polynomial Division
Your notes

Polynomial division
What is polynomial division?
Polynomial division is the process of dividing two polynomials

Px ( )

Dx ( )

D x is called the divisor

( )

The degree of the divisor is less than or equal to the degree of the polynomial

The result gives a quotient polynomial Q ( x and a remainder polynomial R x

) ( )

Px Rx
=Q x + D x
( ) ( )

Dx
( )

( ) ( )

What are the degrees of the quotient and

remainder?
If P ( x has degree n and is divided by a divisor D x with degree k
) ( ) ≤n
Px Rx
=Q x + D x
( ) ( )

Dx
( )

( ) ( )

The degree of the quotient Q ( x is equal to n − k

)

The degree of the remainder R ( x is less than k

)

For example, when x 5 − 7 is divided by x 2 + 2

The degree of the quotient is 3
The degree of the remainder is less than 2
It could be 0 (a constant term) or 1 (a linear expression)

How do I divide polynomials?

Let's use the example:

Px = 2x 4 + 3x 3 − x 2 + 5
( )

D x = x 2 + 2x − 1
( )

STEP 1
Divide the leading term of the polynomial P ( x by the leading term of the divisor
)

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 This is the first term of the quotient

2x 4 Your notes
e.g. 2
x
= 2x 2
STEP 2
Multiply the divisor by this term

e.g. 2x 2 ( x 2 + 2x − 1 ) = 2x 4 + 4x 3 − 2x 2
Subtract this from the original polynomial P ( x to find the current remainder
)

The leading term should be cancelled out

e.g. 2x 4
( + 3x 3 − x 2 + 5 − 2x 4 + 4x 3 − 2x 2 = − x 3 + x 2 + 5
) ( )

STEP 3
Repeat steps 1 – 2 using the current remainder as the main polynomial
Keep repeating the steps until the degree of the remainder is less than the degree
of the division
Find the second term of the quotient

x3
e.g. − 2 = −x
x
e.g.−x x 2 + 2x − 1 = − x 3 − 2x 2 + x
( )

e.g. −x 3 + x 2 + 5 − −x 3 − 2x 2 + x = 3x 2 − x + 5
( ) ( )

Find the third term of the quotient

3x 2
e.g. 2
x
=3
e.g. 3 ( x 2 + 2x − 1
= 3x 2 + 6x − 3 )

e.g. 3x 2 − x + 5 − 3x 2 + 6x − 3 = − 7x + 8
( ) ( )

STEP 5
Identify the quotient and the remainder
The quotient is the sum of all the terms from step 1

e.g. Q ( x ) = 2x 2 − x + 3
The remainder is the last remainder from step 2

e.g. R ( x ) = − 7x + 8

Examiner Tips and Tricks

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 There are multiple ways to set out polynomial division, such as using a bus stop or a
grid. The steps above are used in both methods. You can see an example of the bus
stop method in the worked example. Your notes

How do I divide by comparing coefficients?

STEP 1
Write the expression as P ( x ) =Q x D x +R x
( ) ( ) ( )

Use the facts about the degrees to get the correct number of terms

e.g. 2x 4 + 3x 3 − x 2 + 5 = x 2 + 2x − 1 ( ) ( ax 2 + bx + c ) + dx + f
( )

STEP 2
Work out the leading coefficient of the polynomial on the right-hand side and set it
equal to the leading coefficient on the left-hand side
You can find the leading term of the quotient

e.g. for x 4 : 2 = a therefore a = 2

STEP 3
Repeat the step for the next leading term
You might have to use the previous value

e.g. for x 3 : 3 = b + 2a2 = b + 4 therefore b = − 1

STEP 4
Keep repeating to find all the unknowns

Remember to include missing terms such as 0x

− = c + 2b − a = c − 2 − 2 = c − 4 therefore c = 1
e.g. for x 2 : 1

e.g. for x : 0 = 2 c − b + d = 6 + 1 + d = 7 + d therefore d = − 7

e.g. for constant terms: 5 = − c + f = − 3 + f therefore f = 8

Examiner Tips and Tricks

In an exam you can use whichever method to divide polynomials - just make sure your
method is written clearly so that if you make a mistake you can still get a mark for your
method!

Worked Example

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 x 4 + 11x 2 − 1
a) Perform the division . Hence write x 4 + 11x 2 − 1 in the form
x +3 Your notes
Qx( ) × x +3 + R.
( )

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 Your notes

x 4 + 4x 3 − x + 1
b) Find the quotient and remainder for . Hence write
x 2 − 2x
x 4 + 4x 3 − x + 1 in the form Q x × x 2 − 2x + R x .
( ) ( ) ( )

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 Your notes

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 Factor & Remainder Theorem
Your notes

Factor theorem
What is the factor theorem?
The factor theorem states that for any polynomial function P ( x the following is true
)

b
ax − b is a factor of P x then P ⎜⎜ =0
⎛ ⎞
If ⎟
⎟
a
( ) ( )

⎝ ⎠

b
If P ⎜⎜
⎛

a
⎞
⎟
⎟ = 0 then ( ax − b is a factor of P x
) ( )

⎝ ⎠

For example:

2 −3 4 + 5 −3 3 − 27 = 0
( ) ( )

so x + 3 is a factor of 2x 4 + 5x 3 − 27 = 0
( )

2x 4 − x 3 + 4x 2 − 8x + 3 ≡ 2x − 1 x 3 + 2x − 3 ( ) ( )

1 4 1 3 1 2 1
so 2 ⎜⎜
⎛

2
⎞
⎟
⎟ − ⎛
⎜
⎜
2
⎞
⎟
⎟ +4 ⎛
⎜
⎜
2
⎞
⎟
⎟ −8 ⎛
⎜
⎜
2
⎞
⎟
⎟ +3=0
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠

The factor theorem connects the roots of a polynomial equation and the factors of the
polynomial function
Rearrange the root to make it equal to zero to find the factor

1
e.g. x = 2 ⇒ 2x − 1 = 0 so 2x − 1 ( ) would be the factor

Make the factor equal to zero and solve to find the root

4 4
e.g. 3x + 4 = 0 ⇒ x = − 3 so x = − 3 would be a root
How do I use the factor theorem to find unknown
values?
You might be given a polynomial equation with one or two unknown coefficients

e.g. 2x 3 − x 2 + ax − 3 = 0
You will be given one or two factors of the polynomial expression

e.g. 2x ( −3 ) is a factor

To find the value(s) of the unknown(s)

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 Set the factor equal to zero and solve for x

3 Your notes
e.g. 2x −3=0 ⇒x = 2
Substitute the value of x into the polynomial equation and simplify

3 3 3 2 3 3 3
e.g. 2 ⎜⎜
⎛

2
⎞
⎟
⎟ − ⎛
⎜
⎜
2
⎞
⎟
⎟ +a ⎛
⎜
⎜
2
⎞
⎟
⎟ − 3 = 0 simplifies to 2 a + 2 = 0
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠

Solve the resulting equation(s) to find the unknown value(s)

= −1
e.g. a
How do I use the factor theorem to fully factorise a
polynomial?
Find a root of the polynomial equation

p
Test values of the form x =±q into the polynomial where

p is a factor of polynomial's constant term

q is a factor of the coefficient of the polynomial's leading term
1 3
e.g. for P ( x ) = 2x 4 + 5x 3 − x 2 + 5x − 3 try x = ± 1, ± 3, ± 2 , ± 2
1
P ⎜⎜
⎛

2
⎞
⎟
⎟ = 0 and P −3 = 0 ( )

⎝ ⎠

Use the factor theorem to identify factors

e.g. 2x
( −1 ) and ( x −3 )

Divide the polynomial by each factor

You can divide by one factor at a time

2x 4 + 5x 3 − x 2 + 5x − 3
e.g.
2x − 1
= x 3 + 3x 2 + x + 3
x 3 + 3x 2 + x + 3
e.g.
x +3
= x2 + 1
Or divide by the expansion of the factors

2x 4 + 5x 3 − x 2 + 5x − 3
e.g.
2x 2 + 5x − 3
= x2 + 1
Check to see if the new polynomial can be factorised

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 Your notes
Examiner Tips and Tricks
Even if you tested all possible roots in the original polynomial, you still need to check if
the new polynomial has any roots. It is possible that some of the roots are repeated.
( + ) ( +
For example, the factors might be x 1 x 2 x 1 x 2 . Testing the ) ( + +
) ( )

( + ) ( +
original polynomial will only tell you that x 1 and x 2 are factors, it doesn't)

tell you how many times they appear.

Repeat the steps until you get a linear expression or a polynomial that cannot be
factorised
The factorised form is the product of all the factors you found

e.g. 2x 4 + 5x 3 − x 2 + 5x − 3 = 2x − 1 x + 3
( ) ( ) ( x 2 + 1 try
)

Worked Example
Determine whether ( x − 2 is a factor of the following polynomials:
)

a) f x
( ) = x 3 − 2x 2 − x + 2 .

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b) gx
( ) = 2x 3 + 3x 2 − x + 5.
Your notes

It is given that 2x
( −3 ) is a factor of hx
( ) = 2x 3 − bx 2 + 7x − 6.
c) Find the value of b .

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 Your notes

Remainder theorem
What is the remainder theorem?
The remainder theorem states that for any polynomial function P ( x the following is
)

true

b
x is divided by ax − b is equal to P ⎜⎜
⎛ ⎞
The remainder when P ⎟
⎟
a
( ) ( )

⎝ ⎠

The remainder theorem is used to find the remainder when you divide a polynomial
function by a linear function

Px r
= Q x + ax − b
( )

where
ax − b
( )

Q x is the quotient polynomial

( )

r is the remainder
This means P ( x ) = ( ax − b Q x ) ( ) +r
b b
So P ⎜⎜
⎛

a
⎞
⎟
⎟ =0×Q ⎛
⎜
⎜
a
⎞
⎟
⎟ +r=r
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠

For example:

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 5 3 5
⎛
8 ⎜⎜
2
⎞
⎟
⎟ −2 ⎛
⎜
⎜
2
⎞
⎟
⎟ − 15 = 105
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ Your notes
so the remainder when you divide 8x 3 2x 15 by 2x 5 is 105
( − − ) ( − )

The factor theorem is a special case of the remainder theorem when the remainder is
zero
How do I use the remainder theorem?
A question will involve a polynomial being divided by a linear expression
You will be asked to find one of the following:
an unknown coefficient of the polynomial
an unknown coefficient of the linear expression
the remainder
Follow these steps for all the cases:

Set the linear expression equal to zero and solve for x

2
e.g. 3x +2=0 ⇒x = − 3
Substitute the value of x into the polynomial equation

2 3 2 7 2
e.g. 9 − + a − 3 + 5 simplifies to 3 − 3 a
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟

⎝
3 ⎠ ⎝ ⎠

This is equal to the remainder

7 2
3
− 3 a=1
Solve to find any unknowns

a=2

Worked Example
Let f x ( 2x 4
) = − 2x 3 − x 2 − 3x + 1 , find the remainder R when f ( x is)

divided by:

a) x −3.

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 Your notes

b) x + 2.

893
The remainder when f x is divided by 2x + k is .
8
( ) ( )

c) Given that k > 0, find the value of k .

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 Your notes

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 Graphs & Roots of Polynomial Functions
Your notes

Sketching polynomial graphs

What is a polynomial?
A polynomial is a sum of terms of the form ax k where

a is a real number
k ≥ 0 is an integer
A polynomial looks like P ( x ) = an x n + ... + a2x 2 + a1x + a0
The degree of a polynomial is its highest power

e.g. the degree of 4x 3+ 5x 2 − 7 is 3

e.g. the degree of 2x − 7 is 1

The leading term of a polynomial is the term with the highest power

+ 5x 2 − 7 is 4x 3
e.g. the leading term of 4x 3

What’s the relationship between a polynomial’s

degree and its zeros?
If a real polynomial P ( x has degree n
)

it will have n zeros which can be written in the form a + b i, where a, b ∈ ℝ

these zeros are not necessarily distinct
they can be repeated
For example:
A quadratic will have 2 zeros
A cubic function will have 3 zeros
A quartic will have 4 zeros
Every real polynomial of odd degree has at least one real zero

What do I need to know to sketch the graph of a

polynomial function?
Suppose P x = a x n + a x n − 1 + …+ a 1x + a 0 is a real polynomial with
n n −1
( )

degree n
To sketch the graph of a polynomial you need to know three things:

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 The y-intercept

Find this by substituting x = 0 to get y = a0 Your notes

The roots
You can find these by factorising or solving y = 0
The shape

This is determined by the degree (n) and the sign of the leading coefficient (a )
n
How does the multiplicity of a real root affect the
graph of the polynomial?
The multiplicity of a root is the number of times it is repeated when the polynomial is
factorised

If x = k is a root with multiplicity m then x − k m is a factor of the polynomial

( )

The graph either crosses the x-axis or touches the x-axis at a root x = k where k is a real
number

If x = k has multiplicity 1 then the graph crosses the x-axis at k , 0

( )

If x = k has multiplicity 2 then the graph has a turning point at k , 0 ( ) so touches

the x-axis

=
If x k has odd multiplicity m ≥ 3 then the graph has a stationary point of
( ,
inflection at k 0 so crosses the x-axis
)

If x = k has even multiplicity m ≥ 4 then the graph has a turning point at

( k , 0 so touches the x-axis
)

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 Your notes

Examples of how the multiplicity of roots affects the shape of the graph

How do I determine the shape of the graph of the

polynomial?
Consider what happens as x tends to ± ∞

The leading The degree The graph approaches The graph tends to
coefficient a is... n is... from the... the...
n

positive even top left top right

lim f x ( ) =+∞ lim f x( ) =+∞

x →−∞ x →∞

negative even bottom left bottom right

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 lim f x ( ) =−∞ lim f x
( ) =−∞
x →−∞ x →∞
Your notes
positive odd bottom left top right

lim f x ( ) =−∞ lim f x

( ) =+∞
x →−∞ x →∞

negative odd top left bottom right

lim f x ( ) =+∞ lim f x

( ) =−∞
x →−∞ x →∞

Examples of the shapes of polynomial graphs

How do I sketch the graph of a polynomial

function?
Plot the y-intercept
Plot the roots

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Identify the multiplicity of each root
Identify where the graph starts and ends Your notes
Connect the points using a smooth curve
There will be at least one turning point in-between each pair of roots
If the degree is n then there is at most n – 1 stationary points
Every real polynomial of even degree has at least one turning point
Every real polynomial of odd degree bigger than 1 has at least one point of
inflection

Examiner Tips and Tricks

If it is a calculator paper, then you can use your GDC to find the coordinates of any
turning points.
If it is the non-calculator paper, then you will not be required to find the turning points
when sketching unless specifically asked to.

Worked Example
a) The function f is defined by f x
( ) = x +1
( ) ( 2x − 1 x − 2 2 . Sketch the
) ( )

=
graph of y f x . ( )

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 Your notes

b) The graph below shows a polynomial function. Find a possible equation of the
polynomial.

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 Your notes

Solving polynomial equations

What is the fundamental theorem of algebra?
The fundamental theorem of algebra states that every real polynomial with degree n
can be factorised into n complex linear factors
Some of which may be repeated
This means the polynomial will have n zeros (some may be repeats)
Every real polynomial can be expressed as a product of real linear factors and real
irreducible quadratic factors
An irreducible quadratic is where it does not have real roots
The discriminant will be negative: b2 – 4ac < 0
If a + bi (b ≠ 0) is a zero of a real polynomial
then its complex conjugate a – bi is also a zero
Every real polynomial of odd degree will have at least one real zero

How do I solve polynomial equations?

Let P x = 0 where P x is a real polynomial of degree n
( ) ( )

P x = a n x n + a n − 1x n − 1 + …+ a 1x + a 0
( )

In your exam
you may be given one zero

or you might have to find a zero x =k

You can do this by substituting values into P ( x until it equals 0
)

If you know x = k is a real root

then x − k is a factor
( )

If you know x = a + b i is a non-real root

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 then you know a quadratic factor ( x − a + bi x − a − bi
( )) ( ( ))

This can be written as (( x−a − bi

) ) (( x−a ) + bi )
Your notes

And it simplifies to (( x − a 2 + b2
) )

You can use polynomial division to divide P ( x by a factor to get another factor
)

e.g. dividing a cubic by a linear factor will give you a quadratic factor
You then may be able to factorise this new factor
You can solve the polynomial equation once you know all of its factors

Worked Example
1
Given that x=is a zero of the polynomial defined by
2
f x = 2x 3 − 3x 2 + 5x − 2 , find all three zeros of f .
( )

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 Sum & Product of Roots of Polynomials
Your notes

Sum & product of roots

How do I find the sum & product of the roots of a
polynomial?
Suppose P x = a x n + a x n − 1 + …+ a 1x + a 0 is a polynomial of degree
n n −1
( )

n
a n is the coefficient of the leading term

a n − 1 is the coefficient of the x n − 1 term

This could be equal to zero

e.g. P ( x ) = 3x 4 + x 2 − x + 1
a 0 is the constant term
This could be equal to zero

e.g. P ( = 2x 3 − 5x 2 + 3x
x )

The n roots of the equation P x = 0 are denoted as α , α , ..., α

1 2 n
( )

Some roots might be complex and/or repeated

You can find their sum and product without finding the values of the roots

Examiner Tips and Tricks

= 0 is written as ∑ a rx r = 0, an ≠ 0 in the formula booklet.

n
The equation P ( x )

r =0

In factorised form P ( x ) = an x − α 1 x − α 2 ... x − α n

( ) ( ) ( )

The coefficient of the x n − 1 term is a

n
−α 1 − α 2 − ... − α n
( )

The constant term is a

n
−α 1 × −α 2 × ... × −α n
( ) ( ) ( )

The sum of the roots is given by:

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 an −1
α 1 + α 2 +…+ α n = −
an Your notes
The product of the roots is given by:

−1 n a0
α 1 × α 2 ×…× α n =
( )

an

Examiner Tips and Tricks

Both of these formulas are in your formula booklet.

For example, consider 5x 4 + 2x 3 − 3x 2 + x − 7 = 0

2
The sum of the roots is equal to −5
−1 4 × −7 7
=− 5
( ) ( )

The product of the roots is equal to

5

How can I find unknowns if I am given the sum

and/or product of the roots of a polynomial?
Write down all the roots you know
If you know a complex root of a real polynomial then its complex conjugate is
another root
You can form two equations using the roots
One using the sum of the roots formula
One using the product of the roots formula
Solve the equations to find any unknowns

Examiner Tips and Tricks

Examiners might trick you by not having an x n − 1 term or a constant term.

To make sure you do not get tricked, you can write out the full polynomial using 0 as a
+
coefficient where needed. For example, write x 4 2x 2 5x as −
+ + − +
x 4 0x 3 2x 2 5x 0 .

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Worked Example
Your notes
5
2 − 3i , i and α are three roots of the equation
3
18x − 9x 4 + 32x 3 + 794x 2 − 50x + k = 0 , where k is a real constant.
5

a) Given that α is a real number, find the value of α .

b) Find the value of k .

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