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 Types and standards

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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Not to be confused with keyboard computer.
Duration: 35 seconds.0:35Typing on a laptop keyboard

A computer keyboard is a built-in or peripheral input device modeled after

the typewriter keyboard[1][2] which uses an arrangement of buttons or keys to
act as mechanical levers or electronic switches. Replacing early punched
cards and paper tape technology, interaction via teleprinter-style keyboards
have been the main input method for computers since the 1970s,
supplemented by the computer mouse since the 1980s, and
the touchscreen since the 2000s.

Keyboard keys (buttons) typically have a set of

characters engraved or printed on them, and each press of a key typically
corresponds to a single written symbol. However, producing some symbols
may require pressing and holding several keys simultaneously or in
sequence.[3] While most keys produce characters (letters, numbers or
symbols), other keys (such as the escape key) can prompt the computer to
execute system commands. In a modern computer, the interpretation of key
presses is generally left to the software: the information sent to the computer,
the scan code, tells it only which physical key (or keys) was pressed or
released.[4]

In normal usage, the keyboard is used as a text entry interface for typing text,
numbers, and symbols into application software such as a word
processor, web browser or social media app. Touchscreens use virtual
keyboards.

History
Typewriters are the definitive ancestor of all key-based text entry devices, but
the computer keyboard as a device for electromechanical data entry and
communication largely comes from the utility of two devices: teleprinters (or
teletypes) and keypunches. It was through such devices that modern
computer keyboards inherited their layouts.

As early as the 1870s, teleprinter-like devices were used to simultaneously

type and transmit stock market text data from the keyboard across telegraph
lines to stock ticker machines to be immediately copied and displayed
onto ticker tape.[citation needed] The teleprinter, in its more contemporary form, was
developed from 1907 to 1910 by American mechanical engineer Charles
Krum and his son Howard, with early contributions by electrical
engineer Frank Pearne. Earlier models were developed separately by
individuals such as Royal Earl House and Frederick G. Creed.

Earlier, Herman Hollerith developed the first keypunch devices, which soon
evolved to include keys for text and number entry akin to normal typewriters
by the 1930s.[5]

The keyboard on the teleprinter played a strong role in point-to-point and

point-to-multipoint communication for most of the 20th century, while the
keyboard on the keypunch device played a strong role in data entry and
storage for just as long. The development of some of the earliest computers
incorporated electric typewriter keyboards: the development of
the ENIAC computer incorporated a keypunch device as both the input and
paper-based output device, and the BINAC computer made use of an
electromechanically controlled typewriter for both data entry onto magnetic
tape (instead of paper) and data output.[6]

The keyboard remained the primary, most integrated computer peripheral well
into the era of personal computing until the introduction of the mouse as a
consumer device in 1984. By this time, text-only user interfaces with sparse
graphics gave way to comparatively graphics-rich icons on screen.[7] However,
keyboards remain central to human-computer interaction to the present
though mobile personal computing devices such
as smartphones and tablets use a virtual keyboard.

Types and standards

Further information: Keyboard layout
 A wired computer keyboard for desktop

use manufactured by Lenovo

Different types of keyboards are available and each is designed with a focus
on specific features that suit particular needs. Today, most full-size keyboards
use one of three different mechanical layouts, usually referred to as
simply ISO (ISO/IEC 9995-2), ANSI (ANSI-INCITS 154-1988), and JIS (JIS X
6002-1980), referring roughly to the organizations issuing the relevant
worldwide, United States, and Japanese standards, respectively. (In fact, the
mechanical layouts referred such as "ISO" and "ANSI" comply to the primary
recommendations in the named standards, while each of these standards in
fact also allows the other way.) ANSI standard alphanumeric keyboards have
keys that are on three-quarter inch centers (0.75 inches (19 mm)), and have a
key travel of at least 0.15 inches (3.8 mm).[citation needed]

A size comparison between typical

keyboard form factors
compact
+ tenkeyless
+ + full-size

Modern keyboard models contain a set number of total keys according to their
given standard, described as 101, 104, 105, etc. and sold as "Full-size"
keyboards.[8] Modern keyboards matching US conventions typically have 104
keys while the 105 key layout is the norm in the rest of the world. This number
is not always followed, and individual keys or whole sections are commonly
skipped for the sake of compactness or user preference. The most common
choice is to not include the numpad, which can usually be fully replaced by
the alphanumeric section; such designs are referred to as "tenkeyless" (or
TKL).[9] Laptops and wireless peripherals often lack duplicate keys and ones
seldom used. Function- and arrow keys are nearly always present.

Another factor determining the size of a keyboard is the size and spacing of
the keys. The reduction is limited by the practical consideration that the keys
must be large enough to be easily pressed by fingers. Alternatively, a tool is
used for pressing small keys.

Desktop or full-size
Desktop computer keyboards include alphabetic characters and numerals
(and usually additionally a numeric keypad), typographical symbols and
punctuation marks, one or more currency symbols and other special
characters, diacritics and a variety of function keys. The repertoire
of glyphs engraved on the keys of a keyboard accords with national
conventions and language needs. Computer keyboards are similar to electric-
typewriter keyboards but contain additional keys, such as the command
key or Windows keys.

Laptop-size

Keyboards on laptops usually have a

shorter travel distance and a reduced set of keys.

Keyboards on laptops and notebook computers usually have a shorter travel

distance for the keystroke, shorter over travel distance, and a reduced set of
keys. They may not have a numeric keypad, and the function keys may be
placed in locations that differ from their placement on a standard, full-sized
keyboard. The switch mechanism for a laptop keyboard is more likely to be a
scissor switch than a rubber dome; this is opposite the trend for full-size
keyboards.

Flexible keyboards
Flexible keyboards are a junction between normal type and laptop type
keyboards: normal from the full arrangement of keys, and laptop from the
short key distance. Additionally, the flexibility allows the user to fold/roll the
keyboard for better storage and transfer. However, for typing the keyboard
must be resting on a hard surface. The vast majority[10] of flexible keyboards in
the market are made from silicone; this material makes them water- and dust-
proof. This is useful in hospitals,[11] where keyboards are subjected to frequent
washing, and other dirty or must-be-clean environments.

Handheld

An AlphaGrip handheld keyboard

Handheld ergonomic keyboards[12][13] are designed to be held like a game
controller, and can be used as such, instead of laid out flat on top of a table
surface.

Typically handheld keyboards hold all the alphanumeric keys and symbols
that a standard keyboard would have, yet only be accessed by pressing two
sets of keys at once; one acting as a function key similar to a 'Shift' key that
would allow for capital letters on a standard keyboard.[14] Handheld keyboards
allow the user the ability to move around a room or to lean back on a chair
while also being able to type in front or away from the computer.[15] Some
variations of handheld ergonomic keyboards also include a trackball mouse
that allow mouse movement and typing included in one handheld device.[16]

Thumb-sized
Smaller external keyboards have been introduced for devices without a built-
in keyboard, such as PDAs, and smartphones. Small keyboards are also
useful where there is a limited workspace.[17]
A thumb keyboard (thumb board) is used in some personal digital assistants
such as the Palm Treo and BlackBerry and some Ultra-Mobile PCs such as
the OQO.

Numeric keyboards contain only numbers, mathematical symbols for addition,

subtraction, multiplication, and division, a decimal point, and several function
keys. They are often used to facilitate data entry with smaller keyboards that
do not have a numeric keypad, commonly those of laptop computers.[18] These
keys are collectively known as a numeric pad, numeric keys, or a numeric
keypad, and it can consist of the following types of keys: Arithmetic
operators, numbers, arrow keys, Navigation keys, Num Lock and Enter key.

Multifunctional

Multifunction keyboard with LCD function

keys

Multifunctional keyboards provide additional function beyond the standard

keyboard. Many are programmable, configurable computer keyboards and
some control multiple PCs, workstations and other information sources,
usually in multi-screen work environments. Users have additional key
functions as well as the standard functions and can typically use a single
keyboard and mouse to access multiple sources.

Multifunction keyboard with touch

Multifunctional keyboards may feature customised keypads, fully

programmable function or soft keys for macros/pre-sets, biometric or smart
card readers, trackballs, etc. New generation multifunctional keyboards
feature a touchscreen display to stream video, control audio visual media and
alarms, execute application inputs, configure individual desktop environments,
etc. Multifunctional keyboards may also permit users to share access to PCs
and other information sources. Multiple interfaces (serial, USB, audio,
Ethernet, etc.) are used to integrate external devices. Some multifunctional
keyboards are also used to directly and intuitively control video walls.

Common environments for multifunctional keyboards are complex, high-

performance workplaces for financial traders and control room operators
(emergency services, security, air traffic management; industry, utilities
management, etc.).

Non-standard layout and special-use

types
One-handed keyboards
Many keyboards have been designed for one-handed operation. The first one,
a chorded keyboard, was invented by Douglas Engelbart. Other types of one-
handed keyboards include the FrogPad, the Half-keyboard,[19] and one-handed
Dvorak keyboard layouts designed for one hand typing.

Chorded
Main article: Chorded keyboard

While other keyboards generally associate one action with each key, chorded
keyboards associate actions with combinations of key presses. Since there
are many combinations available, chorded keyboards can effectively produce
more actions on a board with fewer keys. Court reporters' stenotype machines
use chorded keyboards to enable them to enter text much faster by typing a
syllable with each stroke instead of one letter at a time. The fastest typists (as
of 2007) use a stenograph, a kind of chorded keyboard used by most court
reporters and closed-caption reporters. Some chorded keyboards are also
made for use in situations where fewer keys are preferable, such as on
devices that can be used with only one hand, and on small mobile devices
that don't have room for larger keyboards. Chorded keyboards are less
desirable in many cases because it usually takes practice and memorization
of the combinations to become proficient.

Virtual
Virtual keyboards, sometimes called on-screen keyboards (rarely software
keyboards), consist of computer programs that display an image of a
keyboard on the screen. Another input device such as a mouse or a
touchscreen can be used to operate each virtual key to enter text. Virtual
keyboards have become very popular in touchscreen enabled cell phones due
to the additional cost and space requirements of other types of hardware
keyboards. Microsoft Windows, Mac OS X, and some varieties of Linux
include on-screen keyboards that can be controlled with the mouse. In these,
the mouse has to be maneuvered onto the on-screen letters given by the
software. On the click of a letter, the software writes the respective letter in
the respective spot.

Projection
Projection keyboards project an image of keys, usually with a laser, onto a flat
surface. The device then uses a camera or infrared sensor to "watch" where
the user's fingers move, and will count a key as being pressed when it "sees"
the user's finger touch the projected image. Projection keyboards can
simulate a full size keyboard from a very small projector. Because the "keys"
are simply projected images, they cannot be felt when pressed. Users of
projected keyboards often experience increased discomfort in their fingertips
because of the lack of "give" when typing. A flat, non-reflective surface is also
required for the keys to be projected. Most projection keyboards are made for
use with PDAs and smartphones due to their small form factor.

Optical keyboard technology

Further information: Keyboard technology

Also known as photo-optical keyboard, light responsive keyboard, photo-

electric keyboard and optical key actuation detection technology.

An optical keyboard technology[20][better source needed] utilizes LEDs and photo

sensors to optically detect actuated keys. Most commonly the emitters and
sensors are located in the perimeter, mounted on a small PCB. The light is
directed from side to side of the keyboard interior and it can only be blocked
by the actuated keys. Most optical keyboards[21] require at least 2 beams (most
commonly vertical beam and horizontal beam) to determine the actuated key.
Some optical keyboards use a special key structure that blocks the light in a
certain pattern, allowing only one beam per row of keys (most commonly
horizontal beam).
Key types
Alphanumeric

A Greek keyboard lets the user type in

both Greek and the Latin alphabet (MacBook Pro).

Alphabetical, numeric, and punctuation keys are used in the same fashion as
a typewriter keyboard to enter their respective symbol into a word processing
program, text editor, data spreadsheet, or other program. Many of these keys
will produce different symbols when modifier keys or shift keys are pressed.
The alphabetic characters become uppercase when the shift key or Caps
Lock key is depressed. The numeric characters become symbols or
punctuation marks when the shift key is depressed. The alphabetical,
numeric, and punctuation keys can also have other functions when they are
pressed at the same time as some modifier keys.

The Space bar is a horizontal bar in the lowermost row, which is significantly
wider than other keys. Like the alphanumeric characters, it is also descended
from the mechanical typewriter. Its main purpose is to enter the space
between words during typing. It is large enough so that a thumb from either
hand can use it easily. Depending on the operating system, when the space
bar is used with a modifier key such as the control key, it may have functions
such as resizing or closing the current window, half-spacing, or backspacing.
In computer games and other applications the key has myriad uses in addition
to its normal purpose in typing, such as jumping and adding marks to check
boxes. In certain programs for playback of digital video, the space bar is used
for pausing and resuming the playback.

Modifier keys
 The Control, Windows, and Alt keys are

important modifier keys. A space-cadet

keyboard has many modifier keys.

Modifier keys are special keys that modify the normal action of another key,
when the two are pressed in combination. For example, Alt + F4 in Microsoft
Windows will close the program in an active window. In contrast, pressing
just F4 will probably do nothing, unless assigned a specific function in a
particular program. By themselves, modifier keys usually do nothing.

The most widely used modifier keys include the Control key, Shift key and
the Alt key. The AltGr key is used to access additional symbols for keys that
have three symbols printed on them. On the Macintosh and Apple keyboards,
the modifier keys are the Option key and Command key, respectively. On Sun
Microsystems and Lisp machine keyboards, the Meta key is used as a
modifier and for Windows keyboards, there is a Windows key. Compact
keyboard layouts often use a Fn key. "Dead keys" allow placement of
a diacritic mark, such as an accent, on the following letter (e.g., the Compose
key).

The enter/return key typically causes a command line, window form or dialog
box to operate its default function, which is typically to finish an "entry" and
begin the desired process. In word processing applications, pressing the enter
key ends a paragraph and starts a new one.

Cursor keys
Navigation keys or cursor keys include a variety of keys which move the
cursor to different positions on the screen.[22] Arrow keys are programmed to
move the cursor in a specified direction; page scroll keys, such as the Page
Up and Page Down keys, scroll the page up and down. The Home key is used
to return the cursor to the beginning of the line where the cursor is located;
the End key puts the cursor at the end of the line. The Tab key advances the
cursor to the next tab stop. The Insert key is mainly used to switch between
overtype mode, in which the cursor overwrites any text that is present on and
after its current location, and insert mode, where the cursor inserts a
character at its current position, forcing all characters past it one position
further. The Delete key discards the character ahead of the cursor's position,
moving all following characters one position "back" towards the freed place.
On many notebook computer keyboards the key labeled Delete (sometimes
Delete and Backspace are printed on the same key) serves the same purpose
as a Backspace key. The Backspace key deletes the preceding
character. Lock keys lock part of a keyboard, depending on the settings
selected. The lock keys are scattered around the keyboard. Most styles of
keyboards have three LEDs indicating which locks are enabled, in the upper
right corner above the numeric pad. The lock keys include Scroll lock, Num
lock (which allows the use of the numeric keypad), and Caps lock.[23]

System commands

4800-52 mainframe / dumb terminal

keyboard, circa mid 1980s. Note the obscure configuration of modifier and
arrow keys, line feed key, break key, blank keys, and repeat key.

The SysRq and Print screen commands often share the same key. SysRq
was used in earlier computers as a "panic" button to recover from crashes
(and it is still used in this sense to some extent by the Linux kernel; see Magic
SysRq key). The Print screen command used to capture the entire screen and
send it to the printer, but in the present it usually puts a screenshot in
the clipboard.

Break key

The Break key/Pause key no longer has a well-defined purpose. Its origins go
back to teleprinter users, who wanted a key that would temporarily interrupt
the communications line. The Break key can be used by software in several
different ways, such as to switch between multiple login sessions, to terminate
a program, or to interrupt a modem connection. In programming, especially
old DOS-style BASIC, Pascal and C, Break is used (in conjunction with Ctrl)
to stop program execution. In addition to this, Linux and variants, as well as
many DOS programs, treat this combination the same as Ctrl+C. On modern
keyboards, the break key is usually labeled Pause/Break. In most Windows
environments, the key combination Windows key+Pause brings up the system
properties.

Escape key
Main article: Esc key
The escape key ( esc ) has a variety of meanings according to Operating
System, application or both. "Nearly all of the time",[24] it signals Stop,[25] QUIT,
[26]
or "let me get out of a dialog" (or pop-up window).[24][27] It triggers the Stop
function in many web browsers.[28]

The escape key was part of the standard keyboard of the Teletype Model
33 (introduced in 1964 and used with many early minicomputers).
[29]
The DEC VT50, introduced July 1974, also had an Esc key. The TECO text
editor (ca 1963) and its descendant Emacs (ca 1985) use the Esc key
extensively.

Historically it also served as a type of shift key, such that one or more
following characters were interpreted differently, hence the term escape
sequence, which refers to a series of characters, usually preceded by
the escape character.[30][31]

On machines running Microsoft Windows, prior to the implementation of the

Windows key on keyboards, the typical practice for invoking the "start" button
was to hold down the control key and press escape. This process still works in
Windows 95, 98, Me, NT 4, 2000, XP, Vista, 7, 8, and 10.[32]

Enter key or Return key

Main article: Enter key
The 'enter key' ⌅ Enter and 'return key' ↵ Return are two closely related keys
with overlapping and distinct functions dependent on operating
system and application. On full-size keyboards, there are two such keys, one
in the alphanumeric keys and the other one is in the numeric keys. The
purpose of the enter key is to confirm what has been typed. The return key is
based on the original line feed/carriage return function of typewriters: in many
word processors, for example, the return key ends a paragraph; in a
spreadsheet, it completes the current cell and move to the next cell.
The shape of the Enter key differs between ISO and ANSI keyboards: in the
latter, the Enter key is in a single row (usually the third from the bottom) while
in the former it spans over two rows and has an inverse L shape.

Shift key
Main article: Shift key
The purpose of the ⇧ Shift key is to invoke the first alternative function of the
key with which it is pressed concurrently. For alphabetic keys, shift+letter
gives the upper case version of that letter. For other keys, the key is engraved
with symbols for both the unshifted and shifted result. When used in
combination with other control keys (such as Ctrl , Alt or AltGr ), the effect is
system and application dependent.

Menu key
Main article: Menu key

The Menu key or Application key is a key found on Windows-oriented

computer keyboards. It is used to launch a context menu with the keyboard
rather than with the usual right mouse button. The key's symbol is usually a
small icon depicting a cursor hovering above a menu. On some Samsung
keyboards the cursor in the icon is not present, showing the menu only. This
key was created at the same time as the Windows key. This key is normally
used when the right mouse button is not present on the mouse. Some
Windows public terminals do not have a Menu key on their keyboard to
prevent users from right-clicking (however, in many Windows applications, a
similar functionality can be invoked with the Shift+F10 keyboard shortcut).

Number pad
Many, but not all, computer keyboards have a numeric keypad to the right of
the alphabetic keyboard, often separated from the other groups of keys such
as the function keys and system command keys, which contains numbers,
basic mathematical symbols (e.g., addition, subtraction, etc.), and a few
function keys. In addition to the row of number keys above the top alphabetic
row, most desktop keyboards have a number pad or accounting pad, on the
right hand side of the keyboard. While num lock is set, the numbers on these
keys duplicate the number row; if not, they have alternative functions as
engraved. In addition to numbers, this pad has command symbols concerned
with calculations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication and division
symbols. The enter key in this keys indicate the equal sign.
Miscellaneous

Multimedia buttons on some keyboards

give quick access to the Internet or control the volume of the speakers.

On Japanese/Korean keyboards, there may be language input keys for

changing the language to use.

Some keyboards have power management keys (e.g., power key, sleep key
and wake key); Internet keys to access a web browser or e-mail; and/or
multimedia keys, such as volume controls; or keys that can be programmed
by the user to launch a specified application or a command like minimizing all
windows.

Multiple layouts
It is possible to install multiple keyboard layouts within an operating system
and switch between them, either through features implemented within the OS,
or through an external application. Microsoft Windows,[33] Linux,[34] and
Mac[35] provide support to add keyboard layouts and choose from them.

Illumination

Backlit mechanical keyboard

Keyboards and keypads may be illuminated from inside, especially on

equipment for mobile use. Both keyboards built into computers and external
ones may support backlighting; external backlit keyboards may have a wired
USB connection, or be connected wirelessly and powered by batteries.
Illumination facilitates the use of the keyboard or keypad in dark
environments.

For general productivity, only the keys may be uniformly backlit, without
distracting light around the keys.

Keys with integrated LED indicator lights

Many gaming keyboards are designed to have an aesthetic as well as
functional appeal, with multiple colours, and colour-coded keys to make it
easier for gamers to find command keys while playing in a dark room.[36] Many
keyboards not otherwise illuminated may have small LED indicator lights in a
few important function keys, or elsewhere on the housing, if their function is
activated (see photo).

See also: ThinkLight

Technology
Main article: Keyboard technology
Key switches
In the first electronic keyboards in the early 1970s, the key switches were
individual switches inserted into holes in metal frames. These keyboards cost
from 80 to 120 USD and were used in mainframe data terminals. The most
popular switch types were reed switches (contacts enclosed in a vacuum in a
glass capsule, affected by a magnet mounted on the switch plunger).[citation needed]

In the mid-1970s, lower-cost direct-contact key switches were introduced, but

their life in switch cycles was much shorter (rated ten million cycles) because
they were open to the environment. This became more acceptable, however,
for use in computer terminals at the time, which began to see increasingly
shorter model lifespans as they advanced.[37]
In 1978, Key Tronic Corporation introduced keyboards with capacitive-based
switches, one of the first keyboard technologies not to use self-contained
switches.[citation needed] There was simply a sponge pad with a conductive-coated
Mylar plastic sheet on the switch plunger, and two half-moon trace patterns on
the printed circuit board below. As the key was depressed, the capacitance
between the plunger pad and the patterns on the PCB below changed, which
was detected by integrated circuits (IC). These keyboards were claimed to
have the same reliability as the other "solid-state switch" keyboards such as
inductive and Hall-effect, but competitive with direct-contact keyboards. Prices
of $60 for keyboards were achieved, and Key Tronic rapidly became the
largest independent keyboard manufacturer.

Meanwhile, IBM made their own keyboards, using their own patented
technology: Keys on older IBM keyboards[38] were made with a "buckling
spring" mechanism, in which a coil spring under the key buckles under
pressure from the user's finger, triggering a hammer that presses two plastic
sheets (membranes) with conductive traces together, completing a circuit.
This produces a clicking sound and gives physical feedback for the typist,
indicating that the key has been depressed.[39]

The first electronic keyboards had a typewriter key travel distance of

0.187 inches (4.75 mm), keytops were a half-inch (12.7 mm) high, and
keyboards were about two inches (5 cm) thick. Over time, less key travel was
accepted in the market, finally landing on 0.110 inches (2.79 mm). Coincident
with this, Key Tronic was the first company to introduce a keyboard that was
only about one inch thick. And now keyboards measure only about a half-inch
thick.

Keyboard with some keytops removed to

show the Cherry MX "Black" switches it is based on. MX switches are a

common choice for mechanical keyboards.
The tactile, non-clicky "brown" version of the Cherry MX switch shown in
disassembled form (four parts, left and centre), with the top off (top right) and
reassembled (bottom right)

Keytops are an important element of keyboards. In the beginning, keyboard

keytops had a "dish shape" on top, like typewriters before them. Keyboard key
legends must be extremely durable over tens of millions of depressions, since
they are subjected to extreme mechanical wear from fingers and fingernails,
and subject to hand oils and creams, so engraving and filling key legends with
paint, as was done previously for individual switches, was never acceptable.
So, for the first electronic keyboards, the key legends were produced by two-
shot (or double-shot, or two-color) molding, where either the key shell or the
inside of the key with the key legend was molded first, and then the other
color molded second. But, to save cost, other methods were explored, such
as sublimation printing and laser engraving, both methods which could be
used to print a whole keyboard at the same time.

Initially, sublimation printing, where a special ink is printed onto the keycap
surface and the application of heat causes the ink molecules to penetrate and
commingle with the plastic modules, had a problem because finger oils
caused the molecules to disperse, but then a necessarily very hard clear
coating was applied to prevent this. Coincident with sublimation printing,
which was first used in high volume by IBM on their keyboards, was the
introduction by IBM of single-curved-dish keycaps to facilitate quality printing
of key legends by having a consistently curved surface instead of a dish. But
one problem with sublimation or laser printing was that the processes took too
long and only dark legends could be printed on light-colored keys. On another
note, IBM was unique in using separate shells, or "keycaps", on keytop bases.
This might have made their manufacturing of different keyboard layouts more
flexible, but the reason for doing this was that the plastic material that needed
to be used for sublimation printing was different from standard ABS keytop
plastic material.

Three final mechanical technologies brought keyboards to where they are

today, driving the cost well under $10:

1. "Monoblock" keyboard designs were developed where

individual switch housings were eliminated and a one-piece
"monoblock" housing used instead. This was possible because
of molding techniques that could provide very tight tolerances
for the switch-plunger holes and guides across the width of the
keyboard so that the key plunger-to-housing clearances were
not too tight or too loose, either of which could cause the keys
to bind.
2. The use of contact-switch membrane sheets under the
monoblock. This technology came from flat-panel switch
membranes, where the switch contacts are printed inside of a
top and bottom layer, with a spacer layer in between, so that
when pressure is applied to the area above, a direct electrical
contact is made. The membrane layers can be printed by very-
high volume, low-cost "reel-to-reel" printing machines, with each
keyboard membrane cut and punched out afterwards.

Plastic materials played a very important part in the development and

progress of electronic keyboards. Until "monoblocks" came along, GE's "self-
lubricating" Delrin was the only plastic material for keyboard switch plungers
that could withstand the beating over tens of millions of cycles of lifetime use.
Greasing or oiling switch plungers was undesirable because it would
attract dirt over time which would eventually affect the feel and even bind the
key switches (although keyboard manufacturers would sometimes sneak this
into their keyboards, especially if they could not control the tolerances of the
key plungers and housings well enough to have a smooth key depression feel
or prevent binding). But Delrin was only available in black and white, and was
not suitable for keytops (too soft), so keytops use ABS plastic. However, as
plastic molding advanced in maintaining tight tolerances, and as key travel
length reduced from 0.187-inch to 0.110-inch (4.75 mm to 2.79 mm), single-
part keytop/plungers could be made of ABS, with the keyboard monoblocks
also made of ABS.
In common use, the term "mechanical keyboard" refers to a keyboard with
individual mechanical key switches, each of which contains a fully encased
plunger with a spring below it and metallic electrical contacts on a side. The
plunger sits on the spring, and the key will often close the contacts when the
plunger is pressed halfway. Other switches require the plunger to be fully
pressed down. The depth at which the plunger must be pressed for the
contacts to close is known as the activation distance. Analog keyboards with
key switches whose activation distance can be reconfigured through software,
optical switches that work by blocking laser beams, and Hall Effect keyboards
that use key switches that use a magnet to activate a hall sensor are also
available.

Some keyboards, called pressure-sensitive, allow varying input according to

the distance pressed, analogously to the analog joystick.[40]

Control processor

Scanning procedure

Computer keyboards include control circuitry to convert key presses into key
codes[41] (usually scancodes) that the computer's electronics can understand.
The key switches are connected via the printed circuit board in an electrical X-
Y matrix where a voltage is provided sequentially to the Y lines and, when a
key is depressed, detected sequentially by scanning the X lines.

The first computer keyboards were for mainframe computer data terminals
and used discrete electronic parts. The first keyboard microprocessor was
introduced in 1972 by General Instruments, but keyboards have been using
the single-chip 8048 microcontroller variant since it became available in 1978.
[citation needed]
The keyboard switch matrix is wired to its inputs, it converts the
keystrokes to key codes, and, for a detached keyboard, sends the codes
down a serial cable (the keyboard cord) to the main processor on the
computer motherboard. This serial keyboard cable communication is only bi-
directional to the extent that the computer's electronics controls the
illumination of the caps lock, num lock and scroll lock lights.

One test for whether the computer has crashed is pressing the caps lock key.
The keyboard sends the key code to the keyboard driver running in the main
computer; if the main computer is operating, it commands the light to turn on.
All the other indicator lights work in a similar way. The keyboard driver also
tracks the Shift, alt and control state of the keyboard.

Some lower-quality keyboards have multiple or false key entries due to

inadequate electrical designs. These are caused by inadequate keyswitch
"debouncing" or inadequate keyswitch matrix layout that don't allow multiple
keys to be depressed at the same time, both circumstances which are
explained below:

When pressing a keyboard key, the key contacts may "bounce" against each
other for several milliseconds before they settle into firm contact. When
released, they bounce some more until they revert to the uncontacted state. If
the computer were watching for each pulse, it would see many keystrokes for
what the user thought was just one. To resolve this problem, the processor in
a keyboard (or computer) "debounces" the keystrokes, by aggregating them
across time to produce one "confirmed" keystroke.

Some low-quality keyboards also suffer problems with rollover (that is, when
multiple keys pressed at the same time, or when keys are pressed so fast that
multiple keys are down within the same milliseconds). Early "solid-state"
keyswitch keyboards did not have this problem because the keyswitches are
electrically isolated from each other, and early "direct-contact" keyswitch
keyboards avoided this problem by having isolation diodes for every
keyswitch. These early keyboards had "n-key" rollover, which means any
number of keys can be depressed and the keyboard will still recognize the
next key depressed. But when three keys are pressed (electrically closed) at
the same time in a "direct contact" keyswitch matrix that doesn't have isolation
diodes, the keyboard electronics can see a fourth "phantom" key which is the
intersection of the X and Y lines of the three keys. Some types of keyboard
circuitry will register a maximum number of keys at one time. "Three-key"
rollover, also called "phantom key blocking" or "phantom key lockout", will only
register three keys and ignore all others until one of the three keys is lifted.
This is undesirable, especially for fast typing (hitting new keys before the
fingers can release previous keys), and games (designed for multiple key
presses).

As direct-contact membrane keyboards became popular, the available rollover

of keys was optimized by analyzing the most common key sequences and
placing these keys so that they do not potentially produce phantom keys in
the electrical key matrix (for example, simply placing three or four keys that
might be depressed simultaneously on the same X or same Y line, so that a
phantom key intersection/short cannot happen), so that blocking a third key
usually isn't a problem. But lower-quality keyboard designs and
unknowledgeable engineers may not know these tricks, and it can still be a
problem in games due to wildly different or configurable layouts in different
games.

Connection types

Apple wireless keyboard

There are several ways of connecting a keyboard to a system unit (more

precisely, to its keyboard controller) using cables, including the standard AT
connector commonly found on motherboards, which was eventually replaced
by the PS/2 and the USB connection. Prior to the iMac line of systems, Apple
used the proprietary Apple Desktop Bus for its keyboard connector.

Wireless keyboards have become popular. A wireless keyboard must have a

transmitter built in, and a receiver connected to the computer's keyboard port;
it communicates either by radio frequency (RF) or infrared (IR) signals. A
wireless keyboard may use industry standard Bluetooth radio communication,
in which case the receiver may be built into the computer. Wireless keyboards
need batteries for power, and may be at risk of data eavesdropping.
Wireless solar keyboards charge their batteries from small solar panels using
natural or artificial light. The 1984 Apricot Portable is an early example of an
IR keyboard.
Alternative text-entering methods

On-screen keyboard controlled with the

mouse can be used by users with limited mobility.

Optical character recognition (OCR) is preferable to rekeying for converting

existing text that is already written down but not in machine-readable format
(for example, a Linotype-composed book from the 1940s). In other words, to
convert the text from an image to editable text (that is, a string of character
codes), a person could re-type it, or a computer could look at the image and
deduce what each character is. OCR technology has already reached an
impressive state (for example, Google Book Search) and promises more for
the future.

Speech recognition converts speech into machine-readable text (that is, a

string of character codes). This technology has also reached an advanced
state and is implemented in various software products. For certain uses (e.g.,
transcription of medical or legal dictation; journalism; writing essays or novels)
speech recognition is starting to replace the keyboard. However, the lack of
privacy when issuing voice commands and dictation makes this kind of input
unsuitable for many environments.

Pointing devices can be used to enter text or characters in contexts where

using a physical keyboard would be inappropriate or impossible. These
accessories typically present characters on a display, in a layout that provides
fast access to the more frequently used characters or character combinations.
Popular examples of this kind of input are Graffiti, Dasher and on-
screen virtual keyboards.

Other issues
Keystroke logging
Unencrypted wireless Bluetooth keyboards are known to be vulnerable to
signal theft by placing a covert listening device in the same room as the
keyboard to sniff and record Bluetooth packets for the purpose of logging keys
typed by the user. Microsoft wireless keyboards 2011 and earlier are
documented to have this vulnerability.[42]

Keystroke logging (often called keylogging) is a method of capturing and

recording user keystrokes. While it is used legally to measure employee
productivity on certain clerical tasks, or by law enforcement agencies to find
out about illegal activities, it is also used by hackers for various illegal or
malicious acts. Hackers use keyloggers as a means to obtain passwords or
encryption keys and thus bypass other security measures.

Keystroke logging can be achieved by both hardware and software means.

Hardware key loggers are attached to the keyboard cable or installed inside
standard keyboards. Software keyloggers work on the target computer's
operating system and gain unauthorized access to the hardware, hook into
the keyboard with functions provided by the OS, or use remote access
software to transmit recorded data out of the target computer to a remote
location. Some hackers also use wireless keylogger sniffers to collect packets
of data being transferred from a wireless keyboard and its receiver, and then
they crack the encryption key being used to secure wireless communications
between the two devices.

Anti-spyware applications are able to detect many keyloggers and cleanse

them. Responsible vendors of monitoring software support detection by anti-
spyware programs, thus preventing abuse of the software. Enabling
a firewall does not stop keyloggers per se, but can possibly prevent
transmission of the logged material over the net if properly
configured. Network monitors (also known as reverse-firewalls) can be used
to alert the user whenever an application attempts to make a network
connection. This gives the user the chance to prevent the keylogger from
"phoning home" with his or her typed information. Automatic form-filling
programs can prevent keylogging entirely by not using the keyboard at all.
Historically, most keyloggers could be fooled by alternating between typing
the login credentials and typing characters somewhere else in the focus
window.[43][better source needed]

Keyboards are also known to emit electromagnetic signatures that can be

detected using special spying equipment to reconstruct the keys pressed on
the keyboard. Neal O'Farrell, executive director of the Identity Theft Council,
revealed to InformationWeek that "More than 25 years ago, a couple of former
spooks showed me how they could capture a user's ATM PIN, from a van
parked across the street, simply by capturing and decoding the
electromagnetic signals generated by every keystroke," O'Farrell said. "They
could even capture keystrokes from computers in nearby offices, but the
technology wasn't sophisticated enough to focus in on any specific
computer."[44]

Physical injury

Proper ergonomic design of computer

keyboard desks is necessary to prevent repetitive strain injuries, which can
develop over time and can lead to long-term disability.[45] Research suggests
that the upright position formerly advocated can lead to degenerative disc
disease, and that a 45 degree reclined position is healthier.[46]

The use of any keyboard may cause serious injury (that is, carpal tunnel
syndrome or other repetitive strain injury) to hands, wrists, arms, neck or
back.[47] The risks of injuries can be reduced by taking frequent short breaks to
get up and walk around a couple of times every hour. As well, users should
vary tasks throughout the day, to avoid overuse of the hands and wrists.
When inputting at the keyboard, a person should keep the shoulders relaxed
with the elbows at the side, with the keyboard and mouse positioned so that
reaching is not necessary. The chair height and keyboard tray should be
adjusted so that the wrists are straight, and the wrists should not be rested on
sharp table edges.[48] Wrist or palm rests should not be used while typing.[49]
Some adaptive technology ranging from special keyboards, mouse
replacements and pen tablet interfaces to speech recognition software can
reduce the risk of injury. Pause software reminds the user to pause frequently.
Switching to a much more ergonomic mouse, such as a vertical mouse or
joystick mouse may provide relief.

By using a touchpad or a stylus pen with a graphic tablet, in place of a mouse,

one can lessen the repetitive strain on the arms and hands.[50]

See also

 Keyboard computer - popular form of computers in the early 1980s

 Digital pen
 Dvorak
 IBM PC keyboard
 Keyboard layout
 Keyboard protector
 Keyboard technology
 Keypad
 Maltron
 Numeric keypad
 Overlay keyboard
 Table of keyboard shortcuts
 Virtual keyboard (touchscreen keyboard)

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Further reading

 Wichary, Marcin (2023). Shift Happens. Lewiston, Maine: Penmor.

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Computer keyboards.

 How Computer Keyboards Work at HowStuffWorks

 "Art of Assembly Language: Chapter Twenty": The PC Keyboard
 Keyboard matrix circuits
 PC World. "The 10 worst PC Keyboards of All Time".

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Categories:
 Computer keyboards
 Computer peripherals
 Computing input devices
 Flexible electronics
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