Subject: Electromagnetic Field Theory

and Radiating Systems (22EC52)

Module-1

Three Dimensional Coordinate

systems and Laws related to Electric
Field
BY
[Link]
Prof, Dept Of ECE,

DSCE, Bengaluru
Introduction to Field Theory

Field theory is a subject which helps us to understand real world, three dimensional electricity and
magnetism. While Circuit theory deals with Current I flowing from battery to load R when the
voltage V is applied across the resistance, Field theory deals with energy conveyed from battery
to load by Electromagnetic fields external to the wires and wires acting as guides for energy flow.
Energy may get radiated when high frequency signal is passed through the wire.

In general, a ‘field’ is a region where any object experiences a force.

• A ‘field’ may be defined mathematically as some function of a vector which connects

an arbitrary origin to a general point in space.

• The study of Electric field (E) and Magnetic field (H) and their effects is the essence
of EM field Theory.

Application:

• Working of Capacitor, Inductor, transformers

• Wireless Communication

• Wireless power transfer

Prerequisites to learn field theory:

• Vectors

• Vector algebra, vector calculus

• Coordinate systems-3 dimensional

– Cartesian

– Cylindrical

-- Spherical
 Vectors

• Scalar Quantity: an undirected magnitude; quantity is fully described by its magnitude.

– Examples: mass, volume, density, length

• Vector Quantity: a directed magnitude; quantity that is represented by an arrow. Arrow

has an arrowhead (direction) and length (magnitude).

– Examples : force, weight, pressure, specific weight & torque, displacement,

velocity & acceleration

Vectors are represented by alphabets with arrow on top. Example

Vector algebra:
Vector products

A dot product conceptually is the projection that one vector has over another. This is why it is a
scalar, it only tells the length of the projection. Another way of thinking is that it tells one how
'parallel' the two vectors are to one another. The larger a dot product between two unit vectors, the
smaller the angle is between them in a given plane or more obtuse if the angle is greater than 90
degrees (the more parallel they are).

A cross product results in a vector that has a direction that is perpendicular to both vectors and a
magnitude that is equal to the parallelogram with side lengths equal to the magnitudes of the two
vectors and a skew equal to the angle between the vectors. Another way of thinking is that it,
conversely to the dot product, tells one how 'perpendicular' the two vectors are. The larger the
magnitude of the cross product between two unit vectors, the larger the angle between the vectors
(up to 90 degrees) in a given plane (the more perpendicular they are).
 Coordinate Systems
For an explicit representation of a vector quantity, a coordinate system is essential. Three
types of coordinate system are Rectangular, Cylindrical and Spherical coordinate systems.

RECTANGULAR CO-ORDINATE SYSTEM (Cartesian system):

Important Features of the 3-D Cartesian coordinate system

 Coordinate Axes – the axes labeled x, y, and z – they form the right-handed coordinate
frame.
 Cartesian Coordinates of P – the real numbers x, y, and z that make up an ordered triple
(x, y, z), and locate point P in space
 Coordinate Planes – the xy-plane, the xz-plane, and the yz-plane have equations z = 0, y
= 0, and x = 0, respectively.
  Origin – the point (0, 0, 0) where the coordinate planes meet.
 Octants – the eight regions defined by the coordinate planes. The first octant contains all
points in space with three positive coordinates.

Vector of unit magnitude and with a particular direction is called unit vector. Unit vectors in
X,Y,Z direction are indicated as ax, ay, az or i, j, k.
RECTANGULAR CO-ORDINATE SYSTEM- VECTOR OPERATIONS

Applications: Distance between points

Differential lengths, surface and Volume elements in Cartesian system:


Given a vector r in Cartesian system, small variation in length of the vector is
 
indicated by dr , differential surface increment is ds and differential volume increment is dv.
NOTE: Most of the times, unit vectors in Cartesian system are indicated by i, j, k instead of
ax, ay, az

Cylindrical Coordinate System:

A cylindrical coordinate system is a three-dimensional system that specifies point positions by
the distance from a chosen reference axis, the direction from the axis relative to a chosen
reference direction, and the distance from a chosen reference plane perpendicular to the axis.
The three coordinates (ρ, φ, z) of a point P are defined as:

 The radial distance ρ is the Euclidean distance from the z axis to the point P.
 The azimuth φ is the angle between the reference direction on the chosen plane and the
line from the origin to the projection of P on the plane.
 The height z is the signed distance from the chosen plane to the point P.

Applications: Cylindrical capacitor, Electric field of line charge


The vector r in cylindrical system in terms of Cartesian unit vectors is given by
 The differential line element is

The differential volume element is

The surface element in a surface of constant radius (a vertical cylinder) is

â 

The surface element in a surface of constant azimuth (a vertical half-plane) is

â 

The surface element in a surface of constant height (a horizontal plane) is

â z

Spherical Coordinate System

Any point on the sphere can be defined by two angles (θ,φ)and r. These angles are defined with
respect to a choice of Cartesian coordinates (x,y,z). The angle θ is defined to be the angle between
the positive Z-axis and the ray from the origin to the point. Note that the values of θ only range
from 0≤θ≤π. The angle φ is defined (in a similar fashion to polar coordinates) as the angle in the
between the positive X-axis and the projection in the x-y plane of the ray from the origin to the
point . The coordinate angle φ can take on values from 0≤φ<2π
The line vector R is given by

The differential length, surface and volumes are given by

Geometric relations between coordinates and unit vectors for Cartesian, cylindrical, and
spherical coordinate systems
Differential length area and volume in different coordinate systems

Problems:

1. Find the distance between (1, 0, 2) and (2, 4,-3) in Cartesian system

2. Obtain the equation for the line between the points P(1,2,3) and Q (2,-2,1)
  
PQ  (2  1)a x  (2  2)a y  (1  3)a z
  
PQ  a x  (4)a y  (2)a z

3. Obtain unit vector from the origin to G (2, -2, 1)

2a x  2a y  a z 2a x  2a y  a z
aˆ G  
2 2  (2) 2  1 3
\
 Coulombs Law and Electric Field Intensity
This chapter deals with Coulomb’s Law and Electric field intensity produced by different
types of charges.

Charge is a physical quantity that can be transferred from one object to another. Charged objects
can exert forces on other charged objects and also on uncharged objects. Electric charge comes
in two types, Positive and negative charge. Conductors are materials in which charges can move
about freely; insulators are materials in which electric charge is not easily transported. Charge is
a scalar and is measured in coulombs. The charge of an electron is -1.602177×10−19C.

Charles Coulomb invented that there is force exerted between two charges which is directly
proportional to the charge magnitudes and inversely proportional to the distance between
them.

The force is along the straight line joining them. If the two charges have the same sign, the
electrostatic force between them is repulsive; if they have different sign, the force between them
is attractive.

In terms of vector quantity

 
  q1 q 2 q1 q 2 R R 
F  aR  where aˆ R  , R R
4R 2 4R 3 R

The constant =8.854X10-12 is the permittivity of free space in C2 m−2 N−1 or F/m.

є=є0 єr , єr is the relative permittivity of the material in which the charges are immersed, and is
dimensionless.
Coulomb’s law is linear. Force on a charge in the presence of several charges is the sum of
forces on that charge due to each of the other charges acting alone.

F=F1+F2+F3+…

Problems

1. A point charge of +3.00 × 10−6 C is 12.0 cm distant from a second point charge of
−1.50 × 10−6 C. Calculate the magnitude of the force on each charge

Being of opposite signs, the two charges attract one another, and the magnitude of this force is
given by Coulomb’s law

= (8.99 × 109)(3.00 × 10−6 C)(1.50 × 10−6 C)/(12.0 × 10−2 m)2

= 2.81N

2. Two identical conducting spheres, fixed in place, attract each other with an
electrostatic force of 0.108N when separated by 50.0 cm, center-to-center. The
spheres are then connected by a thin conducting wire. When the wire is removed,
the spheres repel each other with an electrostatic force of 0.360N. What were the
initial charges on the spheres?

Let the charges on the spheres be q1 and q2. If the force of attraction between them has
magnitude 0.108N, then Coulomb’s law gives us
F = k |q1q2|/r2 = (8.99 × 109) |q1q2|/(0.500m)2 = 0.108N m from which we get
|q1q2| =(0.108N)(0.500m)2(8.99 × 109) = 3.00 × 10−12 C2

But since we are told that the charges attract one another, we know that q1 and q2 have opposite
signs and so their product must be negetive. So we can drop the absolute value sign if we write

q1q2 = −3.00 × 10−12 C2

Then the two spheres are joined by a wire. The charge is now free to re–distribute itself between
the two spheres and since they are identical the total excess charge will be evenly divided
between the two spheres. If the new charge on each sphere is Q, then

Q + Q = 2Q = q1 + q2
The force of repulsion between the spheres is now 0.0360N, so that
F = kQ2r2 = (8.99 × 109)Q2(0.500m)2 = 0.0360N

Q= ±1.00 × 10−6 C
But q1 + q2 = 2Q = ±2.00 × 10−6 C
Choosing + sign and solving for q1 and q2

q1 = 3.00 × 10−6 C or q1 = −1.00 × 10−6 C

q2 = −1.00 × 10−6 C or q2 = 3.00 × 10−6 C

But these really give the same answer: One charge is −1.00 × 10−6 C and the other is +3.00 ×
10−6 C.

3. Given

4. Given
6. Four charges are placed in rectangular coordinate system as shown in the figure
[Link] the total force exerted on the point P(0,0,3) because of all four charges.
7.
 Electric Field Intensity
Consider a charge in fixed position and move a second charge slowly around. One can observe
that there exist everywhere a force on this second charge i.e this second charge is displaying the
existence of a force field. If we take this as a test charge, then from coulombs law,

  q1 qt
Ft  a 1t
4R1t
2

Writing this force as a force/unit charge

Ft   q1
 E  a 1t
4R1t
2
qt

This equation represents a vector field and is called Electric field intensity.

Electric field intensity is defined as the strength of an electric field at any point. It is equal to
the force per unit charge experienced by a test charge placed at that point. The unit of
measurement is the volt/meter

If charge is located at the centre of a spherical coordinate system, then direction is given by radial
vector and distance is the radius r

  q1
E  ar
4r 2

Since coulomb forces are linear, E due to multiple charges on test charge add up and E in general
can be written as

 n
qm 
E   4 r  r
m 1
2
am
m
Line, Surface, and Volume Charge Distributions
Charges can distribute themselves on a line with line charge density ρL (coul/m), on a surface
with surface charge density ρs coul/m2or throughout a volume with volume charge density ρv
(coul/m3). Consider a distribution of free charge dq of differential size within a macroscopic
distribution of line, surface, or volume charge. Then, the total charge q within each distribution
is obtained by summing up all the differential elements. This requires integration over the line,
surface, or volume occupied by the charge.

If different types of charge distributions are there, total electric field at a point due to all these
charges is obtained by summing electric field produced by each. i.e Etotal=EL+Es+Ev+Ep
Charge distributions. (a) Point charge; (b) Line charge; (c) Surface charge; (d) Volume charge.

Problems:

1.
 2.

3. Find the total charge within Line charge ρL uniformly distributed in a circular loop
of radius a circular disc of radius a and a sphere of radius a

Circular loop
2
Q    l dl    ad  2a
l l
l 0

Circular disc
a 2
Q    s ds     adrd  2a
l
2
s
s r 0 0

Sphere of radius a
  a 2
4 3
Q    v dv     vr
2
sin( )drdd  a  v
v 
0 r 0 0
3

4.

5.
Derive the expression for the electric field intensity E at P due to an infinite line charge of
density ρl C / m along Z axis.
Develop an expression for E due to a charge uniformly distributed over an infinite plane
with a surface charge density of ρS C / m2.
Let the plane be perpendicular to Z axis and we shall use Cylindrical Co-ordinates. The source
charge is an infinite plane charge with ρS C / m2 .

Problems:
Determine the electric field caused by spherical cloud of electrons with a volume charge
density ρ=-ρ0 for 0  R  b (both ρ0 and b are positive) and ρ=0 for R>b.

(a) R  b

  b3
4 3  Q
Q  0 b , E  aˆ R   a 0
4 0 R 2 3 0 R 2
R
3

(b) 0  R  b
     
E  a R E , d S  a R dS , 
si
E d S  E  dS  E 4 R 2
si

  R
4 3 
Q    dv    0  dv    0 R , E   aR 0
v v 3 3 0
 Electric flux density, Gauss’ law and divergence
If unit test charge is placed near a point charge it experiences a force. The direction of this force
can be represented by the lines radially coming outward from a +ve charge. These lines are called
flux [Link] the electric field due to a charge can be imagined to be present around it in terms
of a quantity called electric flux.

The total number of lines of force in any particular electric field is called the electric flux.

Electric flux is represented by ψ. Unit is Coulomb.

Properties of Flux lines:

1. Flux lines start from +ve charge and terminate on –ve charge
2. If +ve charge is absent then the flux lines terminate at infinity. In the absence of +ve charge
the flux lines terminate on –ve charge from infinity.
3. Crowding of flux lines will be there in electric field is stronger
4. Flux lines are parallel and never cross each other
5. Flux lines are independent of the medium in which charges are placed
6. The lines always enter or leave the charged surface normally
7. If the charge on a body is Q coulomb, Then total number of lines is nothing but flux.
i.e ψ=Q Coulomb

8. Electric flux is a Scalar field


Vector field associated with the flux is called electric flux density D

The net flux passing normal through unit surface area is called the electric flux density.
Considering a sphere with a charge Q C placed at its centre, flux density is given by

D Coulomb/m2
S
Vector form of D can be written as
 d
D aˆ n where â n is unit vector normal to the surface ds
dS
Considering S  4r 2 and   Q
  Q
D  aˆ r C/m2
S 4r 2

Relationship between D and E

 Q  Q
We have electric field intensity E ˆ
a and flux density D  aˆ r
4r 4r 2
2 r

 
Thus D  E

Flux density for various charge distributions:

1. Line charge
Q    l dl
l

   dll

D l
aˆ r
4r 2
 l
For infinite line of charge E  aˆ r
2r
   l
D  E  aˆ r
2r
2. Surface charge
Q    s ds
s

   dss

D s
aˆ r
4r 2
 
For infinite sheet of charge E  s aˆ n
2
  
D  E  s aˆ n
2

3. Volume charge

Q    v dv
v

  vdv
D v
aˆ r
4r 2

Gauss law:
If the charge of any type is enclosed by a closed surface, irrespective of the type of charge, total
flux passing through the closed surface is equal to the total charge enclosed by that surface. This
is known as Gauss law. Gauss law is stated as

“The electric flux passing through any closed surface is equal to the total charge enclosed by
that surface”
Mathematical representation of Gauss law:

Consider a distribution of charge, shown as a cloud of point charges in Figure surrounded by a

closed surface of any shape. The closed surface may be the surface of some real material, but
more generally it is any closed surface.
If the total charge is Q, then Q coulombs of electric flux will pass through the enclosing surface.
At any point P, consider an incremental element of surface ∆S and let DS make an angle θ with
∆S, as shown in Figure The flux crossing ∆S,is then the product of the normal component of DS
and ∆S,
∆ψ = flux crossing ∆S, = DSnorm ∆S = DS cosθ . ∆S, = DS ∆S,
The total flux passing through the closed surface is obtained by adding the differential
contributions crossing each surface element ∆S

As ψ=Q,

This equation is called as Gauss law

“The closed surface over which integration is carried out to get flux is called Gaussian
surface”
Properties of Gaussian surface:
1. The surface must be closed
2. The surface may be irregular but should be sufficiently large enough to enclose the
charge.
3. At each point the flux density should be either normal or tangential to the surface
4. Flux density is constant over the surface at which D is normal
Applications of Gauss law:
1. As Gauss law is an alternate statement of Coulomb’s law , it can be used to find E and D
 2. It can be used to find total flux passing through the closed surface.

Proof for Gauss law

Consider a charge Q at the centre of a sphere is directed radially out words which is normal to
the surface at any point p on the surface.
Consider differential surface area ds.
Assume spherical coordinate system.

We have

Therefore

Considering integration over the surface, we get

=
i.e Here left hand side is ψ and is proved to be =Q which satisfies Gauss law.


Considering Gauss law   ds  Q
s
D
  

  Dr sin dd  Q
2

0 0

We get
 Qaˆ r  
D But D  E
4r 2
 Qaˆr
Hence E  This is the same equation which we considered earlier.
4r 2

Gauss law applied to differential volume:

Let us consider any point P, shown in Figure, located by a rectangular coordinate system. The
value of D at the point P may be expressed in rectangular components,
D0 = Dx0ax + Dy0ay + Dz0az.

We choose as our closed surface the small rectangular box, centered at P, having sides of lengths
∆x,∆y,∆z.

Apply Gauss’s law, In order to evaluate the integral over the closed surface, the integral must be
broken up into six integrals, one over each face,
We can show

The expression is an approximation which becomes better as ∆ν becomes smaller, and ∆ν

approach zero. Applying Gauss’s law to the closed surface surrounding the volume element
∆ν->0

The methods of the previous section could have been used on any vector A to find ∮ 𝐴. 𝑑𝑠 for a
small closed surface, leading to

where A could represent velocity, temperature gradient, force, or any other vector field. This
operation is known as divergence. The divergence of A is defined as

In different coordinate systems, divergence is given by

\
Physical interpretation:

The divergence of the vector flux density A is the outflow of flux from a small closed surface
per unit volume as the volume shrinks to zero.

THE VECTOR OPERATOR ∇ AND THE DIVERGENCE THEOREM

Divergence is an operation on a vector yielding a scalar result, just as the dot product of two
vectors gives a scalar result, it seems possible that we can find something that may be dotted
formally with D to yield the scalar

We have mathematical operator ∇,called del operator, which is a vector operator.

Considering the vector field D, flux density,

Thus ∇.D=div(D)

Properties of divergence of a vector field:

1. Divergence of a vector field is a scalar

2. Divergence of a scalar has no meaning
3. ∇.(A+B)= ∇.A+ ∇.B
Maxwell’s First equation (Gauss law in Point form):
We have divergence ∇.D given by

But From Gauss’s law, we have

 Q
Thus divD  lt  V
v   0 V

Hence div (D)=ρv or ∇.D= ρv

The above equation is known as Maxwell’s first equation.-also called as point form of
Maxwell’s equation or Gauss law in differential form.

We can state Maxwell’s first equation as “The divergence of electric flux density in a
medium at a point is equal to the volume charge density at that point”

Divergence theorem
But From Gauss’s law, we have

Charge enclosed in a volume is Q   V dv

v

Gauss law in differential form ∇.D= ρv

Q   .Ddv
v
 
 [Link] 
s
 .Ddv
v

This is called divergence theorem, stated as

The integral of the normal component of any vector field over a closed surface is equal to
the integral of the divergence of this vector field throughout the volume enclosed by the
closed surface.
Thus with the help of divergence theorem, the surface integral can be converted to volume
integral.

Problems:
 Energy and potential
Electrical potential is another important aspect of field theory which can be used to determine
electric field with single integration and simple differentiation .To understand this we start with
the work done by unit test charge to move it against the force exerted by a field.

Suppose we wish to move a charge Q a distance dL in an electric field E. The force on Q arising
from the electric field in
 
FEl  QE.a L

Where,

a L =unit vector in the direction of dL.

The force which we need to apply is equal and opposite to the force associated with the field.
 
Fappl  QE.a L

Expenditure of energy is the product of the force and distance, i.e differential work done be
external source moving Q is

dw  QE.aˆ L  dL

dw  Q [Link]
The work required to move the charge a finite distance is determined by integrating which we call
“workdone by electric field in moving a charge” ,
final

w  Q  E.d L
init

Work done in carrying a +ve charge Q about a circular path:

Consider an infinite line charge. We know field at a point due to this charge is :

 L
E  ˆr
a
2r

Let us find the work dine in carrying a positive charge Q about a circular path of radius r centered
at line charge.
Work done must be nil as the path is always perpendicular to the electrical field intensity(radius
direction).If d L is chosen in cylindrical system ,circular path selected demands that dr and dz be
zero(as movement is in φ direction only)
dl  draˆ r  rdaˆ  dzaˆ z  rdaˆ
 L
final

W  Q
init
 2r
aˆ r .rdaˆ

As aˆ  aˆ r  0 W  0

If we try to carry the charge from r=a to b along the radial path, then dL=dr a r

L
final

W  Q
init
 2r
aˆ r .draˆ r

b
L Q L Q L b
W  Q  aˆ r .draˆ r   ln r ]ab   ln
a
2r 2 2 a
This indicate that the work done is in the same direction of E .

Definition of potential difference and potential:

Potential difference V is the work done in moving a unit positive charge from one point to another
in an electric field.
final

V
init
E L  dL

Potential difference in moving a point charge from B to A is

B
VAB   E L  dL
A
It is the work done in the direction opposite to electric field.

For the line charge example.

W  b
V AB   L ln
Q 2 a

For point charge:

Choosing Q at origin, potential difference between A and B at radial distance rA and rB.

Q 1 1
B rA
Q
V AB   E L  dL    aˆ  draˆ r    
A rB
4r 2 r
4  rA rB 
If rA > rB , VAB is positive indicating that energy is expended by the external source in bringing the
positive charge from rB to rA. This agrees with the physical picture showing two like charge
repelling each other.

It is often convenient to speak of absolute potential than potential difference between two points’.
For that we need to consider a reference point where zero potential is there like a ground point.
Reference can be infinity also. But zero reference is conveniently used.

If potential at A is VA and that at B is VB then VAB=VA-VB and VA and VB have zero reference
points.

The potential field of a point charge:

We know potential difference between two points located at rA and rB in the field of a point charge
Q placed at the origin.
Q 1 1
V AB      V A  VB
4  rA rB 

If we take B as reference point which is set at infinity then

Q
v 
4r
Q
This physically means that v  Joules of work must be done in carrying 1C charge
4r
from infinity to any point r meters from charge Q.

This can also be interpreted in another way .If VB=constant then VAB=VA-VB
Q Q
V AB   const   C1
4r 4r

Taking constant (-VB)=0

Q
v
4r
Potential is a scalar quantity and does not involve any direction.

Equipotential surfaces:
It is a surface composed of all those points having the same value of potential. No work is involved
in moving a unit charge around on an equipotential surface for, by definition, there is no potential
difference between any two points on this surface. Example: spherical surface enclosing charge at
the center.

Problem:
 
AN electric field is expressed in the rectangular co-ordinate by E  5 xaˆ a  5aˆ yV / m
Find (a) VMN if point M and N are specified by M(2,6,-1) and N(-3,-3,2) (b) VM if V=0 at Q(4,-
2,-35)(c ) VN if v=2 at p(1,2,-4)

Solution (a)

M 2 2
VMN    (5 xaˆ x  5a y )  (dxaˆ x dyaˆ y  dzaˆ z )    5 xdx   5dy
N 3 3

The potential field of a system of charges: conservative property

Potential concept is useful because it is independent of the path taken. The potential field of a
single point charge, which we shall identify as Q1 and locate at r1 involves only the distance |r-r1|
from Q1 to the point r where we are establishing the value of the potential.

For a zero at infinity, we have

Q
v(r ) 
4  | r  r1 |
(here Q1 is not at the origin)

If potential is arising from two charges,Q1 at r1 and Q2 at r2, then potential as a function of |r-r1|and
|r-r2|, the distance from Q1 and Q2 to the field point

Q Q
v(r )  
4  0 | r  r1 | 4  0 | r  r2 |

If n number of charges are there

n
Qm
v(r )  
m 1 4  0 | r  rm |

If point charge is represented in terms of volume charge density i.e. Q  V V

Then,
 v (r1 )v1  v (r2 )v2  v (rn )vn
v(r )   .........
4 0 | r  r1 | 4 0 | r  r2 | 4 0 | r  rn |

As n  ∞, we get the integral expression

 v (r ' )v'
v(r )  
vol
4 0 | r  r ' |
If the charge distribution takes the form of a line charge or surface charge the integration is over
a line or surface
  L (r ' )dL'
v(r )  
4 0 | r  r ' |
 s (r ' )dS '
v(r )  
s
4 0 | r  r ' |

Example: to find potential on Z axis for a uniform line charge  L in the form of a ring, r=a
in the z=0 plane

We have dL’=adφ’
Distance to point from origin r= z a Z
Distance to charge r’=a a r
|r-r1|= a 2  z 2

 L ad' La
Then v(r )   
4 0 a 2  z 2 2 0 a 2  z 2

The potential arising from a single point charge is the work done in carrying a unit positive charge
from infinity to the point at which we desire the potential.

The expression for potential taking zero reference at infinity

A
V A   E.d L

We also know that work done to move a charge in closed path is zero.

i.e.  E.d L  0
considering a dc network made up of resistors from the above equation we can tell that in work is
done in carrying a unit charge from A through R2 ,R3 to B and then back to A through R1 or the
sum of potential difference around and closed path is zero.
Therefore  E.d L  0 is a form of KVL.

This is a more general form, which can be applied to any region where an electric field exists. Any
field that satisfies equation  E.d L is said to be conservative field.
The name arises from the fact that no work is done around a closed path is energy conserved.

Problem:
A point charge Q=0.4C is located at the origin. Obtain the absolute potential at
A(2,2,3)

Solution:
Q
We have v A  where r= 2 2  2 2  32  17
4  0 r

.04 *109
VA 
4 * 8.854*1012 17
=.08719V

Problem(2)
If charge Q=0.4nc is located at (2,2,3) obtain the potential at A(2,2,3).

Solution:
Q
vA 
4   0 | r  rA |
| r  rA | = (2  2) 2  (2  3) 2  (3  3) 2  1
 0.4 * 10 9
Therefore V A =3.595v
4 0

If three charges 3µc,4µc and 5µc are located at(0,0,0)(2,-1,3) and(0,4,-2) respectively. Find
the potential at (1, 0, 1) assuming zero potential at infinity.

Solution:
Q1 =3µc, Q2 = 4µc, Q3 =5µc

R1= (1  0) 2  (0  0) 2  (1  0) 2  2
R2= (1  2) 2  (0  1) 2  (1  3) 2  6
R3= (1  0) 2  (0  4) 2  (1  2) 2  26

n
Qm
v(r )    42.6kV
m 1 4 0 | r  rm |

Potential gradient:
We already know that potential can be calculated directly from electric field by means of line
integral or by charge or charge densities using surface/volume integrals. Many times we will be
knowing the potential and need to find electric field from potential.

We have V   E  dl

So we need to go in the reverse way if V is known and E is to be found out.

Assuming L short element of length along which E is essentially constant, we get incremental
potential difference V
V   E. L
If we consider angel between L and E as Ө then,
V  EL cos

Let us assume V is a single valued function of x, y, z (i.e. the end point is (x, y, z) and starting
point is zero)
As E is conservative field and result of integration is a unique function of end point. We may pass
the limits and can write
dV
  E cos
dL
It is obvious that the maximum positive increment of potential Vmax will occur when cosӨ=-1 or
ΔL points in the direction opposite to E.
 dV
Then | max  E
dL

Hence we may conclude that

1. The magnitude of electric field intensity is given by the maximum value of the rate of
change of potential with distance.
2. The maximum value is obtained when the direction of the dist increment is opposite to E .
In other words, direction in which the potential is increasing most rapidly.

Considering ΔV=- E . d L =0 for equipotential points, nor E or d L is equal to zero.

Therefore to get equipotential points d L perpendicular to E and let us consider a N as the unit
vector in a direction perpendicular to E
 dv dv dv
E aˆ N then 
dL max dL max dN

 dv
E   aˆ N
dN max

This gives relationship between a vector and a scalar quantity and the operation on V by which –
E is obtained is known as Gradient

 E   gradV

As V is unique function of x,y,z, we may take total differential as

v v v
dv  dx  dy  dz
x y z

Also dv   [Link]  ( E x dx  E y dy  E z dz)

We have E.  E x aˆ x  E y aˆ y  E z aˆ z

 v v v
 E.  ( aˆ x  aˆ y  aˆ z )
x y z

But E   gradV

v v v
 gradV.  aˆ x  aˆ y  aˆ z
x y z

It is clear that gradient of a scalar is a vector.

We already have

v v v
 V .  aˆ x  aˆ y  aˆ z
x y z
 
Hence  V .  gradV and as E   gradV , we can write E  V

In different coordinate systems, gradient is given below.

Problem:
ENERGY DENSITY IN THE ELECTROSTATIC FIELD
Bringing a positive charge from infinity into the field of another positive charge requires work, the
work being done by the external source moving the charge. Let us imagine that the external source
carries the charge up to a point near the fixed charge and then holds it there. Energy must be
conserved, and the energy expended in bringing this charge into position now represents potential
energy, for if the external source released its hold on the charge, it would accelerate away from the
fixed charge, acquiring kinetic energy of its own and the capability of doing work.
In order to find the potential energy present in a system of charges, we must find the work done
by an external source in positioning the charges.

We may start by visualizing an empty universe. Bringing a charge Q1 from infinity to any position
requires no work, for there is no field present.2 The positioning of Q2 at a point in the field of Q1
requires an amount of work given by the product of the charge Q2 and the potential at that point
due to Q1. We represent this potential as V2,1, where the first subscript indicates the location and
the second subscript the source.
That is, V2,1 is the potential at the location of Q2 due to Q1.
Then Work to position Q2 = Q2V2,1
Similarly, we may express the work required to position each additional charge in the field of all
those already present:
Work to position Q3 = Q3V3,1 + Q3V3,2
Work to position Q4 = Q4V4,1 + Q4V4,2 + Q4V4,3 and so forth.
The total work is obtained by adding each contribution:
Total positioning work = potential energy of field
= WE = Q2V2,1 + Q3V3,1 + Q3V3,2 + Q4V4,1+Q4V4,2 + Q4V4,3 + ・・
Noting the form of a representative term in the preceding equation,

where R13 and R31 each represent the scalar distance between Q1 and Q3, we see that it might
equally well have been written as Q1V1,3. If each term of the total energy expression is replaced by
its equal, we have
WE = Q1V1,2 + Q1V1,3 + Q2V2,3 + Q1V1,4 + Q2V2,4 + Q3V3,4 + ・ ・ ・
Adding the two energy expressions gives us a chance to simplify the result a little:
2WE = Q1(V1,2 + V1,3 + V1,4 + ・ ・ ・)
+ Q2(V2,1 + V2,3 + V2,4 + ・・ ・)
+ Q3(V3,1 + V3,2 + V3,4 + ・・ ・)
+ ・・ ・
Each sum of potentials in parentheses is the combined potential due to all the charges except for
the charge at the point where this combined potential is being found. In other words,
V1,2 + V1,3 + V1,4 + ・ ・ ・= V1
V1 is the potential at the location of Q1 due to the presence of Q2, Q3, . . . . We therefore have

In order to obtain an expression for the energy stored in a region of continuous charge distribution,
each charge is replaced by ρν dv, and the summation becomes an integral,

To obtain an equivalent expression to above equation in terms of E and D.

Using Maxwell’s first equation, replace ρν by its equal ∇ · D and make use of a vector identity
which is true for any scalar function V and any vector function D,
∇ · (V D) ≡ V (∇ · D) + D · (∇V )
We then have, successively,
Using the divergence theorem, the first volume integral of the last equation is changed into a closed
surface integral, where the closed surface surrounds the volume considered.

The surface integral is equal to zero, for over this closed surface surrounding the universe we see
that V is approaching zero at least as rapidly as 1/r (the charges look like point charges from there),
and D is approaching zero at least as rapidly as 1/r2. The integrand therefore approaches zero at
least as rapidly as 1/r3, while the differential area of the surface, looking more and more like a
portion of a sphere, is increasing only as r2. Consequently, in the limit as r → ∞, the integrand and
the integral both approach zero. Substituting E = −∇V in the remaining volume integral, we have,

CURRENT AND CURRENT DENSITY

Electric charges in motion constitute a current. The unit of current is the ampere (A), defined as
a rate of movement of charge passing a given reference point (or crossing a given reference
plane) of one coulomb per second. Current is symbolized by I, and therefore

In field theory, we are usually interested in events occurring at a point rather than within a large
region, and we find the concept of current density, measured in amperes per square meter
(A/m2), more useful. Current density is a vector represented by J.

The increment of current ∆I crossing an incremental surface ∆S normal to the current density is

and in the case where the current density is not perpendicular to the surface,
Total current is obtained by integrating,

Current density may be related to the velocity of volume charge density at a point.

Consider the element of charge

To simplify the explanation, assume that the charge element is oriented with its edges parallel to
the coordinate axes and that it has only an x component of velocity. In the time interval ∆t, the
element of charge has moved a distance ∆x. We have therefore moved a charge
through a reference plane perpendicular to the direction of motion in a time
increment ∆t, and the resulting current is

As we take the limit with respect to time, we have

where νx represents the x component of the velocity v. In terms of current density, we find

This last result shows clearly that charge in motion constitutes a current. We call this type of
current a convection current, and J or ρν v is the convection current density.

Continuity equation of Current

The principle of conservation of charge states simply that charges that can be neither created nor
destroyed, although equal amounts of positive and negative charge may be simultaneously
created, obtained by separation, or lost by recombination.

The continuity equation follows from this principle when we consider any region bounded by a
closed surface. The current through the closed surface is
and this outward flow of positive charge must be balanced by a decrease of positive charge (or
perhaps an increase of negative charge) within the closed surface. If the charge inside the closed
surface is denoted by Qi , then the rate of decrease is

and the principle of conservation of charge requires

The presence or absence of a negative sign depends on what current and charge we consider.

The above equation is the integral form of the continuity equation; the differential, or point, form
is obtained by using the divergence theorem to change the surface integral into a volume
integral:

Placing derivative inside the integral, we get

from which we have our point form of the continuity equation,

This equation indicates that the current, or charge per second, diverging from a small volume per
unit volume is equal to the time rate of decrease of charge per unit volume at every point.

Ohm’s law from point form

We know
The ratio of the potential difference between the two ends of the cylinder to the current entering
the more positive end, however, is recognized from elementary circuit theory as the resistance of
the cylinder, and therefore

V = I R ----Ohm’s law

Capacitance

Consider two conductors embedded in a homogeneous dielectric. Conductor M2 carries a total

positive charge Q, and M1 carries an equal negative charge. There are no other charges present,
and the total charge of the system is zero.

We now know that the charge is carried on the surface as a surface charge density and also that
the electric field is normal to the conductor surface. Each conductor is, moreover, an
equipotential surface. Because M2 carries the positive charge, the electric flux is directed from
M2 to M1, and M2 is at the more positive potential. In other words, work must be done to carry a
positive charge from M1 to M2.
Let us designate the potential difference between M2 and M1 as V0. We may now define the
capacitance of this two-conductor system as the ratio of the magnitude of the total charge on
either conductor to the magnitude of the potential difference between conductors,

In general terms, we determine Q by a surface integral over the positive conductors, and we find
V0 by carrying a unit positive charge from the negative to the positive surface,

The capacitance is independent of the potential and total charge, for their ratio is constant. If the
charge density is increased by a factor of N, Gauss’s law indicates that the electric flux density or
electric field intensity also increases by N, as does the potential difference. The capacitance is a
function only of the physical dimensions of the system of conductors and of the permittivity of the
homogeneous dielectric.
Capacitance is measured in farads (F), where a farad is defined as one coulomb per volt. Common
values of capacitance are apt to be very small fractions of a farad,and consequently more practical
units are the microfarad (μF), the nanofarad (nF),and the picofarad (pF).

PARALLEL-PLATE CAPACITOR

We can apply the definition of capacitance to a simple two-conductor system in which the
conductors are identical, infinite parallel planes with separation d
Choosing the lower conducting plane at z = 0 and the upper one at z = d, a uniform sheet of surface
charge ±ρS on each conductor leads to the uniform field

where the permittivity of the homogeneous dielectric is є, and

Note that this result could be obtained by applying the boundary condition at a conducting surface
(Eq. (18), Chapter 5) at either one of the plate surfaces. Referring to the surfaces and their unit
normal vectors in Fig. 6.2, where nl = az and nu = -az , we find on the lower plane:

On the upper plane, we get the same result

The potential difference between lower and upper planes is

Since the total charge on either plane is infinite, the capacitance is infinite. A more practical answer
is obtained by considering planes, each of area S, whose linear dimensions are much greater than
their separation d. The electric field and charge distribution are then almost uniform at all points
not adjacent to the edges, and this latter region contributes only a small percentage of the total
capacitance, which results

Therefore

Energy stored in such a capacitor is

 Steady Magnetic field
The scientist Oersted discovered the relationship between electric and magnetic fields
in1820. He stated that when charges are in motion, they are surrounded by magnetic field. If steady
current flows through the conductor, the field produced will be steady magnetic field which is also
a time invariant. The steady of such a magnetic field is called Magneto statics. Examples of
magneto statics include emf induced, force experienced by s conductor, motoring action,
transformer action etc.

Magnetic field and its properties:

“The region around a magnet within which the influence of the magnet is found is called
as magnetic field.”

Such a field is represented by imaginary lines around the magnet which are called
magnetic lines of force. The direction of such lines of force is also called magnetic lines of flux
or magnetic flux lines.

An important difference between the electric and magnetic field is that with single charge,
electric field can be there but magnetic field is always because of north and south poles. Isolated
poles cannot exist. Thus magnetic field exists in the form of closed loops only. Magnetic flux is
denoted as Ф and measured in Weber (wb). 108lines of force=1 wb.

Magnetic field due to current carrying conductor:

When a straight conductor carries a direct current, magnetic field lines exists around it all along
its length, in the form of concentric circles. The direction of magnetic field depends on the direction
of current flow. Right hand thumb rule is used to determine the direction.
Magnetic field intensity:

Magnetic field strength is used to measure the strength of the magnetic field. It is defined as

“The force experienced by a unit north pole of one weber strength when placed at a point
in the magnetic field”

Unit of magnetic field intensity is N/Wb or A/m or ampere turns/m and is denoted by H (This is

similar to electric field strength E )

Magnetic flux density: Magnetic flux crossing through unit area in a plane at right angles to the

direction of flux is called Magnetic flux density, denoted by B measured in Wb/m2 or tesla.( This

is similar to electric flux density D )
 
Relation between H and B : Magnetic field intensity and flux density are related through the
property of the medium in which current carrying conductor is placed and is called permeability
  
denoted by μ. B  H   0  r H

For free space μ0=4п10-7 H/m

Steady magnetic field

Sources of steady magnetic field are

1. Permanent magnet
2. Electric field changing linearly with time
3. A direct current through conductor

Let us consider the magnetic field produced by the differential direct current element in free
space.

BIOT-SAVART LAW

Consider a differential dc element in free space. Differential current element is a vanishingly small
section of a current-carrying filamentary conductor, where a filamentary conductor is the limiting
case of a cylindrical conductor of circular cross section as the radius approaches zero. We assume
a current I flowing in a differential vector length of the filament dL. The law of Biot-Savart then
states that at any point P the magnitude of the magnetic field intensity produced by the
differential element is proportional to the product of the current, the magnitude of the
differential length, and the sine of the angle lying between the filament and a line connecting
the filament to the point P at which the field is desired; also, the magnitude of the magnetic
field intensity is inversely proportional to the square of the distance from the differential
element to the point P. The direction of the magnetic field intensity is normal to the plane
containing the differential filament and the line drawn from the filament to the point P. i.e.

The geometry is illustrated in the above Figure. Subscripts may be used to indicate the point to
which each of the quantity refers. If we locate the current element at point 1 and describe the point
P at which the field is to be determined as point 2, then

The law of Biot-Savart is sometimes called Ampere’s law for the current element,
In some aspects, the Biot-Savart law is similar of Coulomb’s law when that law is written for a
differential element of charge. Both show an inverse-square-law dependence on distance, and both
show a linear relationship between source and field. The chief difference appears in the direction
of the field.

We have restricted our attention to direct currents only, so the charge density is not a function of
time. The continuity equation

Becomes

Upon applying the divergence theorem, we get

Thus total current crossing any closed surface is zero, and this condition may be satisfied only by
assuming a current flow around a closed path.
Only the integral form of the Biot-Savart law can be verified experimentally, which is given by

The Biot-Savart law may also be expressed in terms of distributed sources, such as current density
J and surface current density K. Surface current flows in a sheet of vanishingly small thickness,
and the current density J, measured in amperes per square meter, is therefore infinite. Surface
current density, however, is measured in amperes per meter width and designated by K. If the
surface current density is uniform, the total current I in any width b is

I=Kb
Where we assume that the width b is measured perpendicularly to the direction in which the current
is flowing.
For a non uniform surface current density, integration is necessary:

where dN is a differential element of the path across which the current is flowing. Thus the
differential current element I dL, where dL is in the direction of the current, may be expressed in
terms of surface current density K or current density J,
I dL = K d S = J dν

and alternate forms of the Biot-Savart law obtained,

Problem:
1. A current sheet K = 8ax A/m flows in the region −2 < y < 2 in the plane z = 0. Calculate
H at P(0, 0, 3):
Using the Biot-Savart law, we write

Taking the cross product gives:

We note that the z component is anti-symmetric in y about the origin (odd parity). Since the
limits are symmetric, the integral of the z component over y is zero. We are left with

Magnetic field due to an infinitely long straight filament carrying a direct

current I:
Biot-Savart law can be used to find magnetic field due to an infinitely long straight filament.
Referring to Figure we should recognize the symmetry of this field. No variation with z or with φ
can exist. Point 2, at which we will determine the field, is therefore chosen in the z = 0 plane. The
field point r is therefore r = ρaρ. The source point r’ is given by r’ = z’az , and therefore
so that

We take dL = dz_az, thus

Because the current is directed toward increasing values of z’, the limits are −∞ and ∞on the
integral, and we have

As aφ is a constant it may be removed from under the integral sign,

Magnetic field due to a finitely long straight filament carrying a direct current
I:

We have

 Idz
Or dH  aˆ
4 (  2  z 2 ) 3 / 2

Use z= ρ tan α and z2= ρ2 tan2 α

dz= ρ sec2 α dα

For z=z1, z1= ρ tan α1

z=z2, z2= ρ tan α2

 2 I . sec2 d
H aˆ 
3/ 2 
I
sin   2
aˆ
1 4 (    tan  )
2 2 2
4 1

Problems
Find H at the centre of a square of side equal to 5m and carrying current of 10A

Here α1, α2 =450, α1=-450 , α1=+450 ρ=5/2=2.5m

Substituting the values, we get

HAB=0.45aФ
Similarly HBC=0.45aФ
HCD=0.45aФ
HDA=0.45aФ
Therefore HT=1.8 aФ