I.

E LECTROMAGNETIC F IELDS A (EMF A):

P ETER A KUON , P H D
A. References
1. Engineering Electromagnetics, 5th Edition 1989, William H. Hayt, Jr: Tata McGraw Hill Edition
2. Electromagnetic Fields, 2nd Edition, 2014, R. Meenakumari, R. Subasri, New Age Int’l (NAI) Pub
3. Electricity and Magnetism, Prantosh Chakraborty, NAI Pub
4. Elements of Electromagnetics, N. O. Sadiku

B. Course Outline
1. Electrostatics in Free-space
2. Field Effects on Different materials and Boundaries
3. Energy Density in Electrostatic Fields
4. Boundary Theorems, Analysis and Synthesis of Electric Fields

C. Preliminaries
1. SI units
2. Vector Algebra and Analysis

II. SI U NITS
A. Fundamental SI Units
Length metre m
Mass Kg Kg
Electric Current Amperes A

B. Derived Units
Area m2
Current Density A/m2

C. Derived Units with Special Naming

capacitance farad, F C/V
inductance henry, H W b/m2
force newton, N m.kg.s−2

D. Derived Units with Special Naming including SI derived units

permittivity farad per metre. F/m
electric flux density coulomb per square metre, C/m2
angular velocity radian per second, rad/s

1
 2

Factor Name Symbol

1024 yotta, Y
1021 zetta, Z
1015 peta, P
1012 tera, T
109 giga, G
106 mega, M
103 kilo, k
102 hecto, h
101 deka, da

Factor Name Symbol

10−24 yocto, y
10−21 zepto, z
10−15 femto, f
10−12 pico, p
10−9 nano, n
10−6 micro, µ
10−3 milli, m
10−2 centi, c
10−1 deci, d

E. SI Prefixes
III. V ECTOR A LGEBRA AND A NALYSIS
A. Scalar Quantities
B. Vector Quantities
• unit vector
• addition, subtraction
• position vector
• distance vector
• multiplication: scalar and vector
• vector components: dot product and cross product

Vector Calculus:
5 : del operator
5V : gradient of a scalar: → vector
5 · V : divergence of a vector: → scalar
5 × V : curl of a vector: → vector
52 V : Laplacian of a scalar: → scalar

Divergence of a vector field simply measures how much the flow is expanding at a given point. It does not show
the direction of flow, thus a scalar quantity.

IV. C OORDINATE S YSTEMS

A. Cartesian/Rectangular (X,Y,Z)
B. Circular Cylindrical (ρ, φ, z )
C. Spherical (r, θ, φ)
D. Transformations of the coordinate systems
 3

V. V ECTOR A LGEBRA AND A NALYSIS

A. Scalar Quantities
B. Vector Quantities
• Unit vector
~ has both magnitude and direction. The magnitude is written as A or | A
A ~ |.
~ is a vector with unity magnitude with the direction along A
A unit vector ~a along A ~.
A~
~a = ~ , | ~a |= 1
|A|

• Vector Operations
In Cartesian coordinates,
A~ = (Ax , Ay , Az ) = Ax~ax + Ay~ay + Az~az .
q
A =| A~ |= A2 + A2 + A2
x y z

Ax~ax +Ay~ay +Az~az

~aA = √ 2 2 2
Ax +Ay +Az

• Addition, subtraction
Let A~ = (Ax , Ay , Az ), B
~ = (Bx , By , Bz ), C
~ = (A
~ + B),
~ D ~ = (A
~ − B)
~ ,
then
C~ = (Ax + Bx )~ax + (Ay + By )~ay + (Az + Bz )~az
D~ = (Ax − Bx )~ax + (Ay − By )~ay + (Az − Bz )~az
Parallelogram rule is normally applied to achieve addition and subtraction of vectors.

• Position vector
This is a radius vector. It is a directed distance from the origin to a point P . For a point P , the position vector is
written as
~ = ~rp = x~ax + y~ay + z~az
OP

• Distance vector
This is a separation vector. The distance vector between points P &Q is the displacement from P to Q
~rP Q = OQ − OP = (~rQ − ~rP )
Example:
Let A~ = 2~ax + 3~ay + 4~az , & B
~ = 5~ax + 2~ay − 6~az , determine a unit vector parallel to 3A
~+B
~
Solution
Let C~ = (11, 11, 6)
~ac = √11(11,11,6)
2 +112 +62
= ±(0.659~ax + 0.659~ay + 0.359~az )

• Vector multiplication: scalar and vector

• vector components: dot product and cross product
~·B
A ~ is defined as the product of B~ and the projection of A
~ onto B
~
~ ~
A · B = B[A cos (θAB )]
θAB → smaller angle between A ~ and B
~

Properties of dot/scalar product:

i) Commutative law:A ~·B ~ =B~ ·A ~
ii) Distributive law:A ~ · (B ~ + C)
~ =A ~·B~ +A ~·C
~
~ ~
iii) A · A = A 2

~ax · ~ay = ~ay · ~az = ~az · ~ax = ai aj cos(90) = 0, [i, j ∈ x, y, z]

~ax · ~ax = ~ay · ~ay = ~az · ~az = ai ai cos(0) = 1, [i ∈ x, y, z]

Cross Product is defined as

 4

A~×B ~ = AB sin (θAB )~an ,

~ and B
where ~an → unit vector normal to the plane containing A ~
the result is a vector quantity
 
 ~ax ~ay ~az 
~×B ~ =  Ax Ay Az 
 
A  
Bx By Bz 
A~×B ~ = (Ay Bz − Az By )~ax + (Az Bx − Ax Bz )~ay + (Ax By − Ay Bx )~az

Properties of cross product:

i) It is not commutative: A ~×B ~ 6= B~ ×A ~
~ ~
but anti-commutative:A × B = −B × A ~ ~
ii) It is not associative:A ~ × (B
~ × C)
~ 6= (A~ × B)
~ ×C ~
~ × (B
iii) It is distributive:A ~ + C)
~ = (A ~ × B)
~ + (A
~ × C)
~
~
A×A=0 ~
~ax × ~ay = ~az ;
~ay × ~az = ~ax ;
~az × ~ax = ~ay ;
→ cyclic permutation

Example
Find the angle between vectors A~ and B~ , given that A
~ = 3~ax + 4~ay + ~az and B
~ = 2~ax − 3~ay + 5~az
Solution
a) Cross product
 
~ax ~ay ~az 
~×B ~ =3
 
A  4 1 
 2 −3 5 
= (20 + 3)~ax − (15 − 2)~ay + (−9 − 8)~az
= (23, −13, −17)

~×B
~ |=
p
|A 232 + (−13)2 + (−17)2 = 31.41
~ B|
|A× ~
sin θAB = ~ ~ = 0.999
|A| |B|

θAB = 87.8o

a) Dot product
A~·B~ = (3, 4, 1) · (2, −3, 5) = 6 − 12 + 5 = −1
√ √
~
| A |= 26 | B ~ |= 38
~B ~
cos θAB = A·
AB = −0.032
θAB = −91.834o :>= 87.8o

Vector Calculus:
5 : del operator is a vector differential operator
5V : gradient of a scalar: → vector: max rate of increase
5 · V : divergence of a vector: → scalar: net flow
5 × V : curl of a vector: → vector: perpendicular rate: rotational
52 V : Laplacian of a scalar: → scalar: div of a gradient

It is defined as follows in different coordinate systems:

a) Cartesian:
 5

h i
∂ ∂ ∂
5= ∂x ~
ax + ∂y ~
ay + ∂z ~
az

b) Cylindrical:
h i
∂
5 = ∂ρ ∂
~aρ + ρ1 ∂φ ~aφ + ∂
∂z ~
az

b) Spherical:
h i
∂ 1 ∂ 1 ∂
5 = ∂r ~ar + r ∂θ ~
aθ + (r sin θ) ∂φ ~
aφ

Divergence of a vector field simply measures how much the flow is expanding at a given point. It does not
show the direction of flow, thus a scalar quantity.

Example
Determine the divergence of the following vector fields:
a) P~ = x3 yz ~ax + xz ~az
Solution
5 · P~ = ∂x
∂ ∂
(Px ) + ∂y ∂
(Py ) + ∂z (Pz )

= 3x2 yz + 0 + x

= 3x2 yz + x

~ = ρ sin φ ~aρ + ρ2 z ~aφ + 3z cos φ ~az

b) Q
Solution
5·Q ~ = 1 ∂ (ρQp ) + 1 ∂ (Qφ ) + ∂ (Qz )
ρ ∂ρ ρ ∂φ ∂z

1 ∂ 2 1 ∂ 2 ∂
= ρ ∂ρ (ρ sin φ) + ρ ∂φ (ρ z) + ∂z (3z cos φ)

= ρ1 (2ρ sin φ) + 0 + 3 cos φ

= 2 sin φ + 3 cos φ

c) The gradient of a scalar potential is given as F~ = 5φ = yz~ax + xz~ay + xy~az . : Determine if F~ is irrotational.
(Hint: find the curl of F~ )
 6

VI. C O - ORDINATE S YSTEMS

A. Cartesian/Rectangular (X,Y,Z)
A vector in Cartesian co-ordinates is written as (Ax , Ay , Az ) = Ax~ax + Ay~ay + Az~az
where
~ax , ~ay , ~az are unit vectors along x, y, z−directions, respectively.

B. Circular Cylindrical (ρ, φ, z )

Fig. 2 Cylindrical

A point P in cylindrical co-ordinates is represented as (ρ, φ, z ), where P is an intersection of two planes, i.e.
-constant ρ−plane (a cylinder)
-constant φ−plane (a plane perpendicular to XY plane and displaced by φ angle from x− axis)
-constant z−plane (parallel to XY plane)
0≤ρ≤∞
0 ≤ φ ≤ 2π
−∞<z <∞
ρ → radius of a cylinder passing through P i.e. radial distance from z−axis
φ is the azimuthal angle, which s measured from the x−axis in the XY plane
A vector in Cylindrical co-ordinates is written as:(Aρ , Aφ , Az ) = Aρ~aρ + Aφ~aφ + Az~az
where
~aρ , ~aφ , ~az are unit vectors along ρ, φ, z−directions, respectively.

In addition:
~aρ · ~aρ = ~aφ · ~aφ = ~az · ~az = 1
~aρ · ~aφ = ~aφ · ~az = ~az · ~aρ = 0
since the unit vectors are mutually perpendicular, while
 7

~aρ × ~aφ = ~az

~aφ × ~az = ~aρ
~az × ~aρ = ~aφ

Fig. 2 Cyclic

C. Spherical (r, θ, φ)

Fig. 2 Spherical

In the spherical system, a point P can be represented as (r, θ, φ) i.e. the intersection of three mutually perpen-
dicular planes.
i) a sphere of radius r, with the center at the origin
ii) a cone having the z−axis as its axis and vertex at origin
iii) a constant φ−plane which is perpendicular to XY plane and displaced by an angle φ from x−axis
θ → co-latitude angle between the z−axis and the position vector P
φ → angle measured from x−axis
with limits
 8

0≤r≤∞
0≤θ<π
0 ≤ φ < 2π
where
~ar × ~aθ = ~aφ
~aθ × ~aφ = ~ar
~aφ × ~ar = ~aθ

D. Transformations of the co-ordinate systems

1) Relationship between Cartesian and Cylindrical:
Cartesian (x, y, z )

Fig. 2 Transform

Cylindrical
p (ρ, φ, z )
ρ = x2 + y 2
φ = tan−1 ( xy ), z = z
x = ρ cos φ
y = ρ sin φ, z = z
↓↓
~ax · ~aρ =| ~ax || ~aρ | cos φ = cos φ
~ax · ~aφ = − | ~ax || ~aφ | cos (90 − φ) = − sin φ
~ay · ~aρ =| ~ay || ~aρ | cos (90 − φ) = sin φ
~ay · ~aφ =| ~ay || ~aφ | cos (φ) = cos φ
~az = ~az

2) Transformation from Cartesian into Cylindrical:

~ = Ax~ax + Ay~ay + Az~az
Given that A
The component of A~ along ~aρ is Aρ
 9

Fig. 2 Transform

a) Aρ = A ~ · ~aρ
= (Ax~ax + Ay~ay + Az~az ) · ~aρ
= Ax~ax · ~aρ + Ay~ay · ~aρ + Az~az · ~aρ
↓↓ ~az · ~aρ =| ~az || ~aρ | cos 90 = 0
= Ax cos φ + Ay sin φ
~ ρ = (Ax cos φ + Ay sin φ)~aρ
A
Similarly,
b) A~ φ = (−Ax sin φ + Ay cos φ)~aφ
~
c) Az = Az~az

In summary:
    
Aρ cos φ sin φ 0 Ax
Aφ  = − sin φ cos φ 0 Ay 
Az 0 0 1 Az
    
Ax cos φ − sin φ 0 Aρ
Ay  =  sin φ cos φ 0 Aφ 
Az 0 0 1 Az

VII. A SSIGNMENT
Derive the transformation Matrices for Spherical to Cylindrical, Cylindrical to Spherical and Cartesian/Spherical
Transformation Matrices.
 10

VIII. K EY L ECTURE P OINTS

• Definitions
• Statement on all Laws and Theorems
• Sketches and Numerical Analysis
• Design Process
• Synthesis of underlying Devices
 11

IX. S TATIC E LECTRIC F IELDS : F REE -S PACE

Static → Time-independent

Concepts

• Electric Field:
~
• Electric Field Intensity: E
• Force between two charges: F~ = q E
~

kQ1 Q2
• Coulomb’s Law: F~BA = R2 ~ aBA ; k= 1
4π0

• Gauss Law: Charge enclosed by a closed surface flux

~ = Pn Qj
• Superposition Principle for N point charges: E j=1 4π0 Rj2 ~
aRj

• Electric Scalar Potential, VAB :

• Electric Field Due to Continuous Charge distributions: Line, Surf ace, V olume

• Equipotential Surface:

• Electric Flux and Flux Density, D

 12

Static → Time-independent

Concepts
Consider two charged bodies which are very small and are placed some distance apart. Let a charge q be placed
in the field of another charge Q, then it will experience a force.
• Force between two charges: F~ = q E ~
~
↓ E → electric field intensity
q → charge
kQ1 Q2
• Coulomb’s Law: F~BA = R2 ~ aBA ; k= 1
4π0

Q1 Q2 Q1 Q2 (~r − ~rk )
F~ = ~ar = (1)
4π0 R2 4π0 |r − rk |3
•Like charges repel and unlike charges attract
•The magnitude of force is directly proportional to the product of the magnitude of charges
•The magnitude of the force is inversely proportional to the square of the distance between the two charges
•The direction of force is along the line joining the two charges
•The force depends on the medium in which the charges are placed

• Electric Field:

~
• Electric Field Intensity: E
This refers to force exerted per unit charge when placed in an electric field:
~ = F = Q1 2 ~ar
E Q 4π0 r

Example
Find the force on a charge Q1 given by 2[µC], which is located at (0, 1, 2) due to a charge Q2 given by −20[µC]
and located at (2, 0, 0).
~ BA = (0, 1, 2) − (2, 0, 0) = (−2, 1, 2)
R
↓R=3
2 × 10−6 × (−20) × 10−6 (2)
 
F~BA = · (−2, 1, 2)
4π × 8.87 × 10−12 × 33
= .... · (−2~ax + ~ay + 2~az )

Superposition Principle can be applied to compute the force for n point charges as follows:
X QQk X QQk (~r − ~rk )
F~ = ~
a r = (3)
4π0 Rk2 4π0 |r − rk |3
k=1:n k=1:n

Similarly,
~ = Pn Qj
E j=1 4π0 Rj2 ~
aRj

Example Two point charges Q1 = −1.2[mC] and Q2 = −2.4[mC] are located at (3, 2, −1) and (−2, −2, 3),
respectively. Calculate the electric force on another charge Q3 = 7[nC] located at (−1, 2, −2) and hence the
electric field intensity.
 13

X QQk X QQk (~r − ~rk )

F~ = 2
~ar =
4π0 R 4π0 |r − rk |3
k=1,2 k=1,2
1.2 × 10−3 × [(−1, 2, −2) − (3, 2, −1)] 2.4 × 10−3 [(−1, 2, −2) − (−2, −2, 3)]
 
Q3 (4)
= − −
4π0 |(−1, 2, −2) − (3, 2, −1)|3 |(−1, 2, −2) − (−2, −2, 3)|3
~
~ = F
E
Q3

•Electric Scalar Potential, VAB :

Electric potential is defined as work done per unit charge.

V =W Q
R B work done in moving a charge Q from A to B against a field is given as
For example,
W = −Q A E ~ · d~l

Example

Two points A and B are 0.24[m] and 0.31[m], respectively from a positive charge of 12 × 10−9 [C]. Determine the
potential difference between the two points.

Solution
Z b
Q
VAB = − 2
dr
a 4π0r

Q 1 1
= −
4π0 rB rA (5)
−9
 
12 × 10 1 1
= −
4π × 8.87 × 10−12 0.31 0.24
= ???

• Electric Field Due to Continuous Charge distributions: Line, Surf ace, V olume

It is possible to have continuous charge distribution at a point, along a line or a surface or a volume i.e. ρL [C/m],
ρS [C/m2 ], or ρV [C/m3 ].
R dQ
Given that E = 4π0 R2 ~
aR [v/m]

i) ForR line charge distribution,

~ = ρL
E 4π0 R2 ~
aR

ii) ForR surface charge distribution,

~ = ρS
E 4π0 R2 ~
aR

iii) For
R volume charge distribution,
~ = ρV
E 4π0 R 2 ~
a R
 14

Example Linear Charge Density

d) A charged wire is characterized by a linear charge
density +λ[C/m] and it is formed into a semi-circle
of radius r[m].
(i) Derive the electric field intensity E~ at the centre
of the circle in terms of λ and compute the magnitude
of E~ given that λ = 2[C/m].
(ii) In what direction is the electric field?

Fig. 2 Linear Charge Density

~ = dQ
dE ~aR
4π0 R2
let dQ = λdx, R = a (6)
~ = λdx ~axp
dE
4π0 a2
Note that the electric field has both x and y components
~ x = dE
dE ~ cos θ
(7)
~ y = dE
dE ~ sin θ
~ is given as
The y component of E
For small angles, x = aθ, dx = adθ
The x component of E ~ is given as λdx
~y =
dE sin θ~ay
4π0 a2
~x = λdx Z θ=π
dE cos θ~ax aλ
4π0 a2 ~
Ey = sin θ~ay dθ
2
Z θ=π
aλ θ=0 4π0 a
~
Ex = cos θ~ax dθ λ
Z θ=π
2 (9)
θ=0 4π0 a = sin θ dθ ~ay
Z θ=π 4π0 a θ=0
λ (8)
= cos θ dθ ~ax λ
4π0 a θ=0 = [− cos θ]π0 ~ay
4π0 a
λ
= [sin θ]π0 ~ax λ
4π0 a = ~ay ↓ y − component exists
2π0 a
= 0 → no x − component

Example: Linear charge density

A power source is in the form of a ring of radius 3[m] and it is used to transfer wireless power to a car, which is
to be parked some metres away along the axis of the ring. A charge density of 18.84×10−8 is distributed uniformly
along the circumference of the ring. The capture device on the car is to receive a potential difference of 6.39[kV ].
1 Q
i) From the expression of work done, show that V = 4π R
ii) how far should the parking bay be located?

Solution
 15

Note: a sketch of the design is necessary

Q Q
λ= =
l 2πa
W Fd kQ1 Q2 R
V = = =
Q Q QR2
1 Q (10)
=
4π R
a ↓ ring radius
b ↓ distance along axis to bay
l ↓ circumf erence of the ring
Z
V =− E ~ · d~l
Z    Z
λ λ λl
= dl = dl =
4πr 4πr 4πr
l = 2πa
p
r = a2 + b2
λa 3λ (11)
V = √ = √
2
2 a + b 2 2 32 + b2
↓↓
3 × 18.84 × 10−8
6.39 × 103 = 1
√
2 × ( 36π × 10−9 ) 32 + b2
↓↓
b = 4[m]
• Equipotential Surface:

• Electric Flux and Flux Density, D:

Electric flux refers to lines of electric force, , Φ = Q coulomb

Since the electric field intensity is given as
~ = Q 2 ~aR ,
E 4π0 R
we write
~ = Q 2 ~aR ,
0 E 4πR
↓
4πR2 → is the area of a spherical surface with radius R
~ = 0 E
D ~ → surface charge density or electric flux density
~ = Q ~ [C/m2 ]
D 4πR2 ~aR = 0 E

• Gauss Law:

The law is applicable to areas of symmetrical charge distribution.

Statement
The electric flux passing through a closed surface is equal to the total charge enclosed by that surface.
~ s .dS
~=Q
H
Φ= D

similarly, we can deduce volume integral of charge density

 16

~ s .dS
~=
H R
Φ= D vol ρv dv

Applications
Finding out the electric field intensity due to a point charge.

Example: Volume charge density

A volume charge is distributed throughout a sphere of radius a, with a uniform volume charge density ρv [c/m3 ].
i) Show that |E ~ r | = ρv a inside the sphere
30
ii) Use Gauss’ law to obtain the electric field intensity due to this volume charge
iii) Illustrate the distribution of E ~ with r, where r is measure from the center of the sphere to a point outside its
surface
iv) what would be the difference if it were placed inside water?

Solution
Note:
~ due to ρv is directed radially away from the center of the charge and is a function of the distance from the
E
~ = Er (r)~ar
center of the sphere. i.e. E
• Choose the Gaussian surface S as the surface of the sphere of radius r > a and r < a, being regions outside the
sphere and inside the sphere, respectively.

CASE I: Field inside the sphere r < a

In this case, we have the following:

I I
~ ~
E · dS = Er~ar · dS~ar
sph
Z
=E ~r dS~ (12)
sph
= Er (4πa2 ) (i)
From Gauss Law,
~ · dS
~ → charge enclosed by Gaussian sphere, S
H
S E
I
~= Q
~ · dS
E
S 0
ρv
= × V olume (13)
0
ρv 4
= × πa3 (ii)
0 3
Fig. Volume Charge Density
From (i) and (ii), we have

ρv 4πa3
Er =
0 3(4πa2 )
ρv a
=
30 (14)
↓
~ = ρv a ~ar
E
30
 17

CASE II: Field outside the sphere r > a

In this case, we have the following:

I I
~ · dS
E ~= Er~ar · dS~ar
sph
Z
~r
=E ~
dS (15)
sph
= Er (4πr2 ) (iii)
From Gauss Law,
~ · dS
~ → charge enclosed by Gaussian sphere, S
H
S E
I
~= Q
~ · dS
E
S 0
ρv
= × V olume (16)
0
ρv 4
= × πa3 (iv)
0 3

From (i) and (ii), we apply the fact that charge enclosed by Gaussian surface of radius r is equal to the charge
enclosed by the given spherical volume of radius, a.

ρv 4πa3
Er =
0 3(4πr2 )
↓ (17)
3
~ = ρv a ~ar
E 2
3r 0

In summary, we have

~ = ρv a ~ar
E 0<r≤a
30
(18)
ρv a3
= 2 ~ar r≥a
3r 0
 18

X. S TATIC E LECTRIC F IELDS : E FFECTS ON M ATERIAL B ODIES

We consider electric fields in Conductors, Insulators and Dielectrics

A. Conductors

~ and
Conduction current arises from drift motion of electrons. The drift is caused by applied electric field E
~
proprtional to E .
The flow of electrons is opposed through some damping forces referred to as resistance.
The current density is given as
J = σE
↓↓
Ohm’s law in point form

Resistance is the ratio of potential difference, V between two ends of a conductor to the current flowing through
the conductor.
Current is given as, I = s J~ · dS~
R

a) For non-uniform conductor

~ ~l ~ ~l
R R
V E·d E·d
R= I = R
~ ~ = R
~ S ~
J·dS σ E·d

b) For uniform conductor

R = VI = J·S
E·l E·l
= σE·S l
= σ·S = ρS l
↓↓:
ρ = σ1 is the resistivity of the conductor of cross-sectional area S

B. Insulators

Convection current is determined as the charge passing through an area per unit time.
It does not obey Ohm’s law and it is found in materials such as liquid or vacuum
I = dQdt
Given a volume charge density, we have
dI = dQ dρv dv
dt = dt =
dρv dSdl
dt
Jd = dρv u
↓↓:
u is the velocity
The convection current density is given as
Jd = ρv u

Example 1
If a surface charge density 10−7 [C/m2 ] is transported at a velocity of 2 m/s on a conveyer belt of 7[cm] in width,
calculate the charge collected in 3 seconds.
Solution
I = ρs uw
Q = It = ρs uw × t
Q = 42 [nC]?
 19

Example 2
A semi-conducting wire of diameter 2[mm] and resistivity, ρ = 0.2×10−7 [S/m] has 1029 free electrons[/m3] when
an electric field of 7[mV /m] is applied to it. Given that the electronic charge is e = −1.6 × 10−19 [C]. Determine:
(a) The charge density of free electrons
(b) The current density
(c) The current in the wire
(d) The drift velocity of the electrons
Solution
(a) The charge density of free electrons
ρv = ne = 1029 × (−1.6 × 10−19 ) = −1.6 × 1010 [C/m3 ]

(b) The current density

J = σE = Eρ = 7 × 10−3 × 5 × 107 = 350 [kA/m2 ]

(c) The current in the wire

I = J × A = J × πr2 = J × π( 22 × 10−4 )2

(d) The drift velocity of the electrons

J J
J = ρv u, u = ρv = −1.6×1010

C. Dielectrics

Dielectric material is a very poor conductor of electric current.

When dielectrics are placed in an electric field, they have no loosely bound, or free, electrons that may drift through
the material.
Electric polarization occurs when placed in an electric field
Polarization: Process of formation of dipoles.
Dipole: → Two opposite charges with the same magnitude, separated by a small distance.
Non-polar materials have molecules that form dipoles when subjected to external electric fileds.
Polar materials have randomly oriented dipoles e.g. water, HCl acid, sulphur dioxide e.t.c.

Polarization may occur in different ways such as:

• Oriental/electret polarization
• Electronic
• Ionic
• Interfacial polarization

Polarization Process:

During polarization, the amount of induced dipoles is proportional to the applied field. When charges are separed
by d[m], the dipole moment is given as
p = Qd [c − m]
Polarization density, p~ is the dipole moment per unit volume.
p~ = vp = Qd
v [C/m ]
2

The effect of polarization is such that the flux density in the materials exceeds that of free-space such that:
~ = 0 E
D ~ + p~
 20

↓
~
p~ = χ0 E
↓
χ : Electric susceptibility, which refers to sensitivity of a given dielectric material to electric fields
↓
D~ = 0 E
~ + χ0 E
~
~
D = 0 (1 + χ) E~
↓
r = (1 + χ) : relative permittivity of the dielectric

• Dielectric breakdown: A dielectric may begin to conduct when a large electric field pulls electrons completely
out of molecules. The dielectric breaks down when this process occurs.
• Dielectric strength: The maximum amount of electric field tolerated by a dielectric before breakdown.

• Properties of Dielectrics
Linear
Homogeneous- does not vary in space
~ E
Isotropic material: D, ~ are parallel
~ ~ P~ are not parallel: crystalline materials
An-isotropic material:D, E,

Example
A dielectric spherical ball of radius 12[cm] has a point charge 2.2[pC] placed at its center. The dielectric has relative
permittivity given as r = 3.43. Calculate:
a) surface density of polarization charge on the surface of the ball
b) the force exerted by the charge on a −4[pC] place on the surface.

Solution
a) polarization density

~ = Q
E ~ar
4π0 r r2   (19)
Q
p~ = χ0 · E = χ0 · ~ar
4π0 r r2
 
Q
p~ = χ · ~ar
4πr r2
 
Q
p = p~ · ~ar = (r − 1) ·
4πr r2 (20)
2.2 × 10−12
 
= (2.43) ·
4π × 3.43 × (12 × 10− 2)2
= 8.613 [pC/m2 ]
b) Force on another charge in the network
Q1 Q2 Q1 Q2
F = 2
=
4πr 4πr 0 r2
Q1 Q2
=
4πr2 (21)
2.2 × 10−12 × −4 × 10−12
=
4π × 3.43 × 0 × (12 × 10−2 )2
= −1.601[pN ]
 21

XI. E NERGY D ENSITY IN E LECTROSTATIC F IELDS

A. Capacitance
What is a capacitor?
• Electrical device of two conductors,
• separated through a dielectric medium or free space,
• that store equal but opposite charges.

Capacitance due to Gauss’ law

Capacitance, C is the ratio of the magnitude of charge on one of the plates to the potential difference between
~ = E
them i.e. since D ~ , and Q = D · S

~ · dS~
H
Q  E
C= = R (22)
V ~ ~
l E · dl
Types of Capacitors

1) Parallel plate capacitors

2) Coaxial capacitors
3) Spherical capacitors
4) Two wire Transmission line

Capacitance of a Parallel plate Capacitor

A
Show that C = d for a parallel plate capacitor.

Consider an upper plate with positive charges, +ρs and a lower plate with negative charges, −ρs

Area: S = A[m2 ]
Q
ρs = S

a) Electric field intensity below +ρs sheet

~ = ρs
E 2 (−~
az )

b) Electric field intensity above −ρs sheet

~ = −ρs
E 2 (~
az )

c) Total Electric field intensity

~ = E~1 + E~2 = ρs Q
E  (−~
az ) = S (−~
az )

d) Potential difference

~ =− ~ · d~l
R
V E

~ = − −ρs (−~az ) · dz~az = − Q (−~az ) · dz~az

R R
V  S
↓
V = Qd Q S
S and C = V , then, C = d = d
A
 22

1
E 2 dv , show that WE = 21 QV = 12 CV 2
R
Given that the energy stored in an electrostatic field is given as WE = 2 v

WE = 12 v E 2 dv
R

The energy stored in an electrostatic field is given by

WE =?
Q
Since E = S
2
1 Q 2 Q
) dv = 12 ( S
R R
WE = 2 v ( S 2) v dv

The volume of a parallel plate capacitor is given as

V =S·d
2
Q 1 Q2 1 Q2
WE = 21 ( S 2 )(S · d) = 2 S = 2 C = 21 Q Q 1
C = 2 QV
d

Capacitance of a Co-axial Capacitor

2πL
Show that C = ln ( ab )
for a coaxial capacitor

Apply Gauss law to a cylindrical surface of radius ρ

~ = ρL
E 2πρ ~
aρ

where the linear charge density is given as

Q
ρL = L

~ = Q
E 2πρL ~
aρ

Thus the potential difference is given by

Z 1 Z ρ=a
V =− ~ · d~l = −
E E~aρ · dρ~aρ
2 ρ=b
Z a
Q
=− dρ
2πρL
Zb a (23)
Q dρ
=−
b 2πL  
ρ
Q b
= ln
2πL a

The capacitance of a coaxial cylinder is given by

Q
C= V

2πL
C= (24)
ln ab
 
 23

Example C1

A capacitor consists of a square metallic plate of sides 1.05[m] and separated 3[mm]. It has a dielectric with
relative permittivity of r = 2.7. If a voltage drop of 120[V ] is maintained between the plates, calculate:
i) the capacitance,
ii) charge
iii) Flux density
iv) Electric field intensity

Solution

A = 1.052 [m2 ]
d = 3 × 10−3 [m]
r = 2.7
V = 120[V ]

i) Capacitance, C
r 0 A
C = Ad = d

0 = 8.85 × 10−12 = 1
36π × 10−9 [F/m]

C = 8.785 [nF ]

ii) Charge on the capacitor

Q = CV = 1.05 [µC]

iii) Flux density,

Q
D= A = 0.9558 [µC/m2 ]

iv) E , potential gradient

D
E= 0 r = 40 [kV /m]

Example C2

A parallel plate capacitor of sides 28[cm] is charged to a potential difference of 150[V ] when the plates are 3[mm]
apart. Find the work done in separating the plates from 3[mm] to 6[mm]. Assume that there are no leakages in
the insulation.

Solution

Plate area: A = (28 × 10−2 )2

V = 150[V ]
d = 3 × 10−3 [m]

Work done in separating the plates

Wd = W6 − W3
 24

0 r A
C1 = d3

0 r A
C2 = d6

Work done in separation, Wd = 12 (C1 − C2 )V 2

Example C3: Composite Capacitor

A parallel plate capacitor has a plate separation d. The capacitance with air only between the plates is given
as Ca [F ]. A dielectric material of thickness dm and relative permittivity r is placed on one of the plates. If the
total capacitance is given by CN , show that CCNa is given as

CN r d
Ca = dm +r (d−dm )

Solution

C = VQ
In the case of air in the spac:
Ca = 0dA
For the composite capacitor:
V = V1 + V2
V1 = E1 (d − dm )
V2 = E2 dm
where
E1 = D0
E2 = D = 0Dr
also
Q=D·A
↓↓  
V =Q A
d−dm
0 + dm
0 r

and since

A0 r A
CN = dm
+(d−dm )
= 0 · dm +r (d−dm )
r

then

CN r d
Ca = dm +r (d−dm )

Example C4: Composite Capacitor

A photo diode is reverse-biased and used to switch on an electronic circuit. Explain how the diode works. Derive
the capacitance of the depletion region and sketch its variation as the reverse-bias voltage increases,

Solution
Q A
C= V = d

As the reverse bias voltage increases, the depletion region increases thus lowering the capacitance according to
C = A
d
 25

Example C5: Composite Capacitor

A parallel plate condenser has the following specifications:

Cross-sectional area of plates: A = 1s.q.m.

Separation between the plates d = 0.01 [m]
The condenser has two layers of dielectric. One has permittivity , for a thickness of dm = 0.008 [m], and other has
air as dielectric for the remaining thickness d − dm . Calculate the capacitance of the system. If a voltage 5000 [V ]
is applied across the capacitor, determine the potential gradient in the two dielectrics 1 = 60 .

Solution
h i
V =Q A
d−dm
0 +
dm
0 r

Q
C= V
 
A
C= d−dm
+ dm
=?
0  0 r

Q
V1 dm
V2 = Q
A1
(d−dm )
= ( dm1 · 2
d−dm )
A2

and

1 = 60
2 = 0
 
V1 0.008 0 2
V2 = 6×0 × 0.002 = 3

Also

V1 + V2 = 5 [kV ]
↓
V1 = 2 [kV ]

V2 = 3 [kV ]

V1
E1 = dm = 2.5 [kV /cm]

V2
E2 = d−dm = 15 [kV /cm]

Example CA: Composite 3 layer Capacitor

A parallel plate capacitor has a total plate separation d [m] and connected to a voltage source of 120 [v] . Derive the
total capacitance given that the capacitor is composed of three layers of media, which are (d−0.2) [m], d2 [m], d3 [m]
in thickness, and possess unequal permittivities, r1 0 , 0 , r2 0 , respectively.
 26

XII. E LECTRIC F IELD B OUNDARIES

Fig. xx BOUNDARY

Boundary conditions are the conditions that electric field must satisfy at the interface separating several media.
A field on one side of the boundary can be used to determine the field on the other side of the boundary.

Examples of Boundaries:
a) Conductor and free-space
b) Conductor and dielectric
c) Dielectric with r1 and another with r2

Steps in the analysis of boundary conditions

Apply the equations of the electrostatic field:

i)
H Conservative property
~ ~
l E · dl = 0

ii)
H Gauss Law
~ ~
S = D · dS = Qencl

ii) Orthogonal Components

E~ =E ~t + E
~n
D~ =D ~t +D~n
where
t → tangential component
n → normal component

A. Conductor and Free-space boundary

In this case,
Dt = 0 Et = 0 → r = 1
Dn = 0 En = ρs
 27

B. Conductor and Dielectric boundary

In this case, we note the following:
1. No electric field exists within a conductor but by the surface, i.e. ρv = 0, E = 0
2. Since E = − 5 V = 0 the conductor is an equipotential body
3. The electric field can pnly be external to the conductor and normal to its surface .i.e.
Dt = 0 r Et = 0
Dn = 0 r En = ρs

C. Dielectric and Dielectric boundary

In this case, we note the following:
1. The tangential components of E ~ are the same on the two sides of the boundary i.e. Et is continuous across the
boundary
2. The tangential components of D ~ is discontinuous across the boundary surface
~
3. The normal components of D is continuous across the boundary surface
4. The normal components of E ~ is discontinuous across the boundary surface

Let D1 , E1 and D2 , E2 make angles θ1 , θ2 with the normal to the interface, respectively.

E1 sin θ1 = E1t = E2t = E2 sin θ2

E1 sin θ1 = E2 sin θ2
D1n = D2n
1 E1 cos θ1 = 2 E2 cos θ2
↓ (25)
tan θ1 tan θ2
=
1 2
↓
tan θ1 1 r1
= =
tan θ2 2 r2
Law of refraction
If θ1 > θ2 , in passing from a medium of higher permittivity to lower permittivity, the lines of electric flux bend
towards the normal.
This forms the basis for electric screening or shielding
 28

XIII. A NALYSIS OF E LECTRIC F IELDS

A. Preliminaries
Poisson’s and Laplace’s Equations:
1. Poisson’s equations.
The equations can be easily derived from Gauss’s law for a linear material medium. In point form, we have

5·D ~ = ρv = 5 · E
~
~ =−5V
E ~
~ = 5 · (− 5 V
5 · E ~)
↓ (26)
~ ) = ρv
5 · (− 5 V
~ ) = − ρv (inhomogeneous medium)
5 · (5V

2~ ρv
5 V =− (Homogeneous medium)

2. Laplace’s equations
A special case occurs when ρv = 0, e.g. in a charge-free region - where there is zero volue charge density but
point, line and surface charges exist at some locations.

~ =0
52 V (27)

The operation 52 is known as Laplacian of V .

In cartesian co-ordinates,
∂ ∂ ∂
5·A= Ax + Ay + Az
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂V ax ∂V ay ∂V az
5V = + +
∂x ∂y ∂z
(28)
∂ ∂V ∂ ∂V ∂ ∂V
5 · 5V = + + ∂z
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂z ∂z
∂2V ∂2V ∂2V
= + +
∂x2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2
For Poisson’s equation,
∂2V ∂2V ∂2V ρv
52 V = + + =− (29)
∂x2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2 
The Laplace’s equation is solved subject to certain conditions.
The physical problem must contain at least one conducting boundary.
If an answer satisfies Laplace equation and also satisfies the boundary condition, then it is the only possible answer.

B. Theoretical Framework
1. Boundary Value Problems
2. Uniqueness Theorem
3. Theory of Images

1. Boundary Value Problems

These are those problems in which potentials at the boundary of a region are specified and the potential field within
 29

the region is to be determined using Laplace’s or Poisson’s equations.

∂2V ∂2V ∂2V

52 V = + + =0
∂x2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2
   2   2 
1 ∂ ∂V 1 ∂ V ∂ V
ρ + 2 2
+ =0 (30)
ρ ∂ρ ∂ρ ρ ∂φ ∂z 2
     2 
1 ∂ 2 ∂V 1 ∂V 1 ∂ V
r + sin θ + 2 =0
r2 ∂r ∂r r2 sin θ ∂θ r sin θ ∂φ2
2

Example

2dt 0
A dielectric of non-uniform permittivity,  = (x+d t)
, fills up a region between plates at x = 0 and x = dt . If
the plate is grounded at x = 0 and maintained at a voltage V0 at x = dt , find:
a) The potential between the plates
b) The field intensity
c) Surface charge density
d) Capacitance per unit area

Solution
E = 5V
ρ=5·D ~ = 5 · E~ =  5 ·(− 5 V ~ ) = − 5 ·( 5 V
~)
We apply the identity for a scalar and vector:
↓
~ ) = S 5 ·V
5 · (S V ~ +V ~ · 5S
↓
~ =  5 ·E
5 · E ~ +E ~ · 5
↓
 5 ·(− 5 V ) + (− 5 V ) · 5 = ρ
 52 V + 5 · 5V = −ρ

For a charge-free region: ρ = 0

Considering the variation of  and V only w.r.t, x, the equation is written as,
 52 V + 5 · 5V = 0
2
 ∂∂xV2 + ( ∂x
∂ ∂V
)( ∂x ) = 0
d dV
dx ( dx ) = 0

Integrating, we get,
Ax2
V (x) = 2A0 x + 4d t 0
+B
2
A x
= 20 (x + 2dt )

Applying boundary conditions

1) At x = 0, V = 0, then B = 0
2) At x = dt , V 2 = V0 , then
Adt
V0 = Ad 3 Adt
20 + 4dt 0 = 4 0
t

↓
A = 43 0dVt 0

a) The potential is given as:

x2
V (x) = 23 Vd0t (x + 2dt
)
 30

b) The potential gradient is given as:

~ =−5V
E ~ = − dV ~ax
2
dx
= 23 Vd0t (x + 2d
x
t
)
2 V0 x
= − 3 dt (1 + dt )

~:
c) Flux density, D
~
D = E ~
= 2d t 0 ~
x+dt · E
= − 43 0dV0 ~ax

d) Charge per unit area of the plate

Q 4 0 V0
A = D = 3 dt ~ ax
The capacitance per unit area is derived as follows:
C Q/A 40
A = V0 = 3dt

2. Uniqueness Theorem
If a Laplace’s equation satisfies a given set of boundary conditions, then, that is the only possible solution and that
solution is said to be unique.

Example on Cylindrical coordinates

Quizz: Assume that V varies with respect to ρ only, synthesize the device in question.

Solution
Laplace equation becomes
 
1 ∂ ∂V
ρ =0 (31)
ρ ∂ρ ∂ρ
Note: since ρ is in the denominator, we dont solve for ρ = 0.
We multiple the equation by ρ and integrate
 
∂V
ρ =A
∂ρ
↓
(32)
1
∂V = A ∂ρ
ρ
V = A ln ρ + B
Equipotential surfaces are given by ρ-constant and are cylinders.
The problem is that of a coaxial capacitor or a coaxial transmission line.

Choose V0
Let V = V0 at ρ = a; V = 0, at ρ = b, b > a,
 31

 
ln [b/ρ] 1
V = V0 = V0
ln [b/a] ln (b/a)
V0 1
E= ~aρ
ρ ln (b/a)
V0
Dn(ρ=a) = (33)
a ln (b/a)
V0 (2πaL)
Q = D × area =
a ln (b/a)
Q 2πL
C= =
V ln (b/a)

3. Theory of Images
A given charge configuration above an infinite grounded perfect conducting plane may be replaced by charge
configuration itself, its image, and an equipotential surface in place of the conducting plane.
Two coditions are met:
1. the image charges must be located in the conducting region
2. the image charges must be located such that on the conducting surface, the potential is zero or constant
Impact:
By method of images,
the field of an electrical charge infront of a conducting plane equals the field of the charge plus field of its image
in the conducting plane.

Y P(x,y,z)

r2 r1
2, -Q 1, +Q

b r4

r3 X
a

3, +Q 4, -Q

Fig. Theory of Images

Problem
In order to simulate lightning phenomena, a point charge +Q is placed at a point (a, b, 0), which is distant from
two semi-infinite conducting planes that intersect at right angles. By the use of method of images:
i) Find the electric potential at a point P (x, y, z), where (x > a, y > b)
 32

ii) Determine the force on the charge +Q

Solution
a) Sketch the charge and its images

i) The potential difference at point P :

V =E·d
h i
Q 1 1 1 1
= 4π0 r1 − r2 + r3 − r4

wherep
r1 = p(x − a)2 + (y − b)2 + z 2
r2 = p(x + a)2 + (y − b)2 + z 2
r3 = p(x + a)2 + (y + b)2 + z 2
r4 = (x − a)2 + (y + b)2 + z 2

ii) Force on the charge at 1 i.e. +Q

−Q2
F1 = 4π0 (2b)2 ~
ay
−Q2
F2 = 4π0 (2a)2 ~
ax

√ Q2 2a~ax +2b ~ay

F3 = ~a3 , ~a3 = √
4π0 [ (2a)2 +(2b)2 ]2 (2a)2 +(2b)2
Q2 (2a ~ax +2b ~ay )
= √
4π0 [ (2a)2 +(2b)2 ]3/2

F = (F1 + F2 + F3 )
 33

XIV. P HYSICS OF THE C APACITOR

Capacitor is an electrical device that stores energy in an electric field
Application:
• A capacitor can be used to filter signals
• Used as a memory element
• Used in power factor correction to reduce reactance
If the plate area is A and separated by d between two plates, the capacitance is given as
C = A d
• It accumulates charge q = Cv over some time, t where the current is given as
dq
i= dt = C dv
dt =
d A
dt ( d v)
Rt Rt
C dv


Q= −∞ idt = −∞ dt dt

1 t 1 t
V =Q
R R
C = C −∞ i dt = C 0 i dt + v(t0 )
↓↓
Memory exists before t = 0

• For a time-varying voltage source: V (t) = A cos (ωt)

i(t) = C dv
dt
= C[−Aω sin (ωt)] = −CωA sin (ωt)
= C[ωA cos (ωt + π2 )]
↓↓
Current leads voltage by 900

• Impedance Ratio:R
A cos (ωt)
Xc,rms = vipp = ωCA R cos (ωt+ π ) = ωC
1
= 2πf1 C
2
↓↓
If ω → 0; Xc → ∞ :
At low frequency, C behaves as an open circuit, while at high frequency C behaves as a short circuit thus passes
more current: Filtering