Differential head, ℎ = −

78 7:
Here,
ℎ=6 − ; + (=8 − =: )
= 13.25 – (– 4.76) = 18.01 9 9
Head lost, ℎ = 3% of ℎ = 0.03 × [In horizontal venturimeters =8 – =: = 0 as
18.01 = 0.54 =8 = =: ]

ℎ−ℎ 18.01 − 0.54

= = = .
2. Orificemeter
ℎ 18.01 Orificemeter or orifice plate is a device

(ii) Rate of flow, !:

(cheaper than a venturimeter) employed for
measuring the discharge of fluid through a
# #
Using, " = × &2'ℎ
pipe. It also works on the same principle of
$# %#
a venturimeter.
It consists of a flat circular plate having a
).)*×).))*+,
= 0.985 × √2 × 9.81 × 18.01
circular sharp edged hole (called orifice)
√).)* %).))*+, concentric with the pipe. The diameter of
! = . ./0 12 /4 the orifice may vary from 0.4 to 0.8 times
the diameter of the pipe but its value is
Problem 4 generally chosen as 0.5. A differential
manometer is connected at section (1)
A venturimeter (throat diameter = 10.5 cm)
which is at a distance of 1.5 to 2 times the
is fitted to a water pipeline (internal
pipe diameter upstream from the orifice
diameter = 21.0 cm) in order to monitor
plate, and at section (2) which is at a
flow rate. To improve accuracy of
distance of about half the diameter of the
measurement, pressure difference across
orifice from the orifice plate on the
the venturimeter is measured with the help
downstream side.
of an inclined tube manometer, the angle of
inclination being 30° (Figure below). For a
manometer reading of 9.5 cm of mercury,
find the flow rate. Discharge co-efficient of
venturimeter is 0.984. ! = . 2 5 12 /4
(Ans).

Fig. 3.13. Orificemeter

Let,
>8 = Area of pipe at section (1),
?8 = Velocity at section (1),
Vertical and inclined venturimeters

78 = Pressure at section (1), and >: , ?: and

Vertical or inclined venturimeters are

7: corresponding values at section (2).

employed for measuring discharge on
pipelines which are not horizontal. The
same formula for discharge as used for
horizontal venturimeter holds good in Applying Bernoulli’s equation at sections
these cases as well. (1) and (2), we get:

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 @ @
+ :A + =8 = + :A + =: The above expression is simplified by
@ @
+ =8 ; − 6 + =: ; = :A − :A
using,
6
&1 − (>) ⁄>8 ):
@ @ =
ℎ = :A − :A G
&1 − (>) ⁄>8 ): :
:
B∴ ℎ = 6 + =8 ; − 6 + =: ;D (where, = co-efficient of discharge)

?:: ?8: &1 − (>) ⁄>8 ): :

= Differential head
=
:
=ℎ+ G
2' 2' &1 − (>) ⁄>8 ):
?8: Discharge, "
?: = 2' Eℎ + F = $2'ℎ + ?8:
2'
&1 − (>) ⁄>8 ): :
&2'ℎ
= >) ×
:

&1 − (>) ⁄>8 ): &1 − (>) ⁄>8 ): :

Now, section (2) is at vena contracta and >: :

represents the area at vena contracta. If >) &2'ℎ >8 >) &2'ℎ
= >) =
&1 − (>) ⁄>8 ): &>:8 − >:)
>8
is the area of orifice, then we have:

G =
>) Hence, " =
# #K &:AL

(where, G = co-efficient of contraction) $# %#K

>: = >) G It may be noted that (co-efficient of

Using continuity equation, we get: discharge) of an orifice is much smaller
# @
>8 ?8 = >: ?: or ?8 =
than that of a venturimeter.
# Difference between a venturimeter and
>) G ?:
?8 =
an orificemeter:
>8 A venturimeter is a device which is inserted
into pipeline to measure incompressible
Thus,
>:) G ?:
fluid flow rates. It consists of a convergent
: :
?: = 2'ℎ +
section which reduces the diameter to
>8: between one-half to one-fourth of the pipe
>) :
diameters. This is followed by a divergent
?:: = 2'ℎ + H I . :: . ?::
>8
section. The pressure difference between

&2'ℎ
the position just before the venturi and at

?: =
the throat of the venturi is measured by a
&1 − (>) ⁄>8 ): ::
differential manometer. The working of the
venturi is based on the Bernoulli’s
∴ Discharge principle, that is, when the velocity head

" = >: ?: = >) . G . ?:

increases in an accelerated flow, there is a
corresponding reduction in the piezometric
&2'ℎ
head.
= >) G
&1 − (>) ⁄>8 ):
The orificemeter is opening, usually round,
:
: located in the side wall of the tank or
reservoir, for measuring the flow of a
liquid. The main feature of the orificemeter

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 is that most of the potential energy of the ρHg = 13600 kg/m3
liquid is converted into kinetic energy of Orifice co-efficient. = 0.6
the free jet issuing through the orifice. Solution.
(a) Refer to discharge through an
The main points of difference between a orificemeter.
venturimeter and orificemeter are: Advantage of an orificemeter over a
 The venturimeter can be used for venturimeter is that its length is short and
measuring the flow rates of all hence it can be used in a wide variety of
incompressible flows. (gases with low application. Venturimeter has excessive
pressure variations, as well as liquids), length.
whereas orificemeters are generally The disadvantage of an orificemeter is that
used for measuring the flow rates of a sizeable pressure loss is increased because
liquids. of the flow separation downstream of the
 Venturimeter is installed in pipeline plate. In a venturimeter the expanding
only, and the accelerated flow through section keeps boundary layer separation to
the apparatus, is subsequently a minimum, resulting in good pressure
decelerated to the original velocity at recovery across the meter.

(b) Given: M8 = 50N = 0.5

the outlet of the venturimeter. The flow

M) = 20N = 0.2,
continues through the pipeline. In the

P = 30 N of Hg = 0.3 of Hg
orificemeter the entire potential energy

Q RSTU at 30°C = 987 V'/ W

of the fluid is converted to kinetic

QXA = 13600 V'/ W

energy, and the jet discharges freely

= 0.6
into the open atmosphere.

Water flow rate !

 In venturimeter, the flow velocity is
measured by noting the pressure
# #K &:AL
Using, " =
difference between the inlet and the
throat of the venturimeter, whereas in $# %#K
Y Y
>8 = M8: = × 0.5: = 0.1963 :
the orificemeter the discharge velocity
4 4
Y : Y
is measured by using Pitot tube or by
>) = M) = × 0.2: = 0.0314 :
trajectory method.
4 4
QXA 13600
ℎ = PE − 1F = 0.3 × H − 1I
Example problems
Problem 1 QX ) 987
(a). Derive an expression for the volumetric = 3.834
flow rate of a fluid flowing through an 0.1963 × 0.0314 × √2 × 9.81 × 3.834
" = 0.6 ×
&0.19632 − 0.03142
orificemeter. Write down the advantages
and disadvantages of using orificemeter = . .0 12 /4

" 0.1655
over a venturimeter. Velocity through the pipe
?8 = = = . /2 1/4
(b) Water is flowing through a pipeline of
50 cm ID at 30°C. An orifice is placed in >8 0.1963
the pipeline to measure the flow rate.
Orifice diameter is 20 cm. If the manometer
reads 30 cm of Hg, calculate the water flow 3. Pitot Tube
rate and velocity of the fluid through the
Pitot tube is one of the most accurate
pipe.
devices for velocity measurement. It works
ρwater at 30°C = 987 kg/m3
on the principle that if the velocity of flow

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 at a point becomes zero, the pressure there = Difference between stagnation
is increased due to conversion of kinetic pressure head (ℎ[ ) and static
energy into pressure. pressure (ℎ) ).
It consists of a glass tube in the form of a The height of liquid rise in the Pitot tube
90° bend of short length open at both its indicates the stagnation head. The static
ends. It is placed in the flow with its bent pressure head may be measured separately
leg directed upstream so that a stagnation with a piezometer (Fig. 3.14).
point is created immediately in front of the
opening (Fig. 3.14). The kinetic energy at Both the static pressure as well as
this point gets converted into pressure stagnation pressure can be measured in a
energy causing the liquid to rise in the device known as Pitot static tube. (Fig.
vertical limb, to a height equal to the 3.15).
stagnation pressure.

Fig. 3.15. Pitot static tube

Fig. 3.14. Pitot tube It consists of two concentric Pitot tubes
Applying Bernoulli’s equation between with an annular space in between as shown
stagnation point (S) and point (P) in the in the figure. The outer tube has additional
undisturbed flow at the same horizontal two or more holes drilled perpendicular to
plane, we get: the direction of flow and thus the liquid
level in it gives the static head, while the
@ @
K
+ :A = Z
or ℎ) + :A = ℎ[ inner tube works as a normal Pitot tube.

? = &2'(ℎ[ − ℎ) ) or &2'ℎ
If a differential manometer is connected to
…(aa) the tubes of a Pitot static tube it will
where, measure the dynamic pressure head.

7) = Pressure at point ‘P’. i.e. static If P is the manometric difference, then

\]
ℎ = PH − 1I
pressure
? = Velocity at point ‘P’. i.e. free \
flow velocity, where,
7[ = Stagnation pressure at point \] = Specific gravity of
‘S’ and manometric liquid, and
ℎ = Dynamic pressure head

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 \ = Specific gravity of the liquid Problem 2.
flowing through the pipe.
A pitot-static tube is used to measure the
Note: When a Pitot tube is placed in the velocity of water in a pipe. The stagnation
fluid-stream the flow along its outer surface pressure head is 6m and the static pressure
gets accelerated and causes the static head is 5m. Calculate the velocity of flow
pressure to decrease. Also, the stem, which assuming the coefficient of tube is 0.98.
4.34 1/4. (Ans).
is perpendicular to the flow direction, tends
to produce an excess pressure head. In order
to take these effects into account eqn. (aa) Problem 3.
is modified to give the actual velocity as:

?RGS = ^ &2'ℎ
Petroleum oil (sp. gr. = 0.9 and viscosity =
13 cP) flows isothermally through a
where, ^ = A connective coefficient or
horizontal 5 cm pipe. A Pitot tube is
inserted at the centre of a pipe and its leads
coefficient of pitot tube. are filled with the same oil and attached to
Example problems a U-tube containing water. The reading on
the manometer is 10 cm.
Problem 1
Calculate the volumetric flow of oil in m3/s.
A submarine fitted with a Pitot tube moves The co-efficient of Pitot tube is 0.98.
horizontally in sea. Its axis is 12 m below
the surface of water. The Pitot tube fixed in Solution.
front of the submarine and along its axis is Given: Sp gr. of oil = 0.9;
8W
µ = 13 Nd = 8)) × 0.1 ef/
connected to the two limbs of a U-tube
containing mercury, the reading of which is :
found to be 200 mm. Find the speed of the
submarine. y = 10 cm of Hg = 0.1 m of Hg.,
Take the specific gravity of sea water = M =5N = 0.05 ;
= 0.98
1.025 times fresh water.
Co-efficient of Pitot tube, ^
Solution
Volumetric flow of oil:
? = &2'ℎ
Reading of the manometer, Differential head,
P = 200 = 0.2 \XA 13.6
ℎ = PH − 1I = 0.1 × H − 1I
Sp. gravity of mercury, \L_ = 13.6 \gh_ 0.9
Sp. gravity of sea water, \_ = 1.025 = 1.411
\L_ 13.6 ∴ Actual velocity of flow, ?RGS = ^ &2'ℎ
ℎ = P H − 1I = 0.2 × H − 1I
\_ 1.025
= 0.98 × √2 × 9.81 × 1.411
= 2.454
= 5.156 /f
? = √2 × 9.81 × 2.454 = 0. 2 1/4 or
5/. `1/ab. Volumetric flow of oil, "gh_ = > × ?RGS

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 Y : ^ (]^)
>= M i= =
4 S S
(‘ ’ is taken

Y : Y
inside the differential, being
"gh_ = ?RGS × M = 5.156 × × 0.05:
4 4
constant)

= . . 12 /4
This equation is known as momentum
principle. It can also be written as:
2 i. kl = k ( m)
0.98 2 9.81 This equation is known as Impulse-
momentum equation. It may be stated as
follows:
3.4.5. Momentum equation
“The impulse of a force F acting on a fluid
The impulse-momentum equation is one of mass ‘m’ in a short interval of time dt is
the basic tools (other being continuity and equal to the change of momentum d(mv)
Bernoulli’s equations) for the solution of in direction of force”.
flow problems. Its application leads to the
solution of problems in fluid mechanics The impulse-momentum equations are
which cannot be solved by energy often called simply momentum equations.
principles alone. Sometimes it is used in Applications of impulse-momentum
conjunction with the energy equation to equation:
obtain complete solution of engineering
problems. The impulse-momentum equation is used in
the following types of problems:
The momentum equation is based on the
law of conservation of momentum or 1. To determine the resultant force acting
momentum principle which states as on the boundary of flow passage by a
follows: stream of fluid as the stream changes its
direction, magnitude or both. Problems of
“The net force acting on a mass of fluid is this type are:
equal to change in momentum of flow per
unit time in that direction”. (i) Pipe bends,
As per Newton’s second law of motion, (ii) Reducers,
i= j (iii) Moving vanes,
where, (iv) Jet propulsion, etc.
= Mass of fluid, 2. To determine the characteristic of flow
i = Force acting on the fluid, and
when there is an abrupt change of flow
section. Problems
j = Acceleration (acting in the of this type are:
same direction as F).
^
But acceleration, j =
(i) Sudden enlargement in a pipe,
S (ii) Hydraulic jump in a channel, etc.
Steady flow momentum equation:

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 The entire flow space may be considered to ∴ Momentum of fluid mass contained in the
be made up of innumerable stream tubes. region 1 2 2′ 1′
= (Q8 >8 kf8 )?8 = (Q8 >8 ?8 kl)?8
Let us consider one such stream tube lying
in the X-Y plane (Fig 3.16) and having
steady flow of fluid. Momentum of fluid mass contained in the
region 4 3 3′ 4′
= (Q: >: kf: )?: = (Q: >: ?: kl)?:
∴ Change in momentum
= (Q: >: ?: kl)?: − (Q8 >8 ?8 kl)?8
But,
Q8 = Q: = Q ...for steady incompressible
flow and,
>8 ?8 = >: ?: = "
Fig. 3.16.
...from continuity
Flow can be assumed to be uniform and considerations
∴ Change in momentum
normal to the inlet and outlet areas.

= Q"(?: − ?8 ) kl
Let,
?8 ,Q8 = Average velocity and density (of
Using impulse-momentum principle, we
fluid mass) respectively at the entrance, and
?:, Q: = Average velocity and density
have:
ikl = Q"(?: − ?8 )kl or,
respectively at the exit.
no
i= (?: − ?8 )
Further let the mass of fluid in the region 1 A
no
= ρQ is the mass flow per
2 3 4 shifts to new position 1′ 2′ 3′ 4′ due to
A
the effect of external forces on the stream The quantity
after a short interval. Due to gradual second and is called mass flux.
Resolving ?8 and ?: along X-axis and Y-
increase in the flow area in the direction of
flow, velocity of fluid mass and hence the
momentum is gradually reduced. Since the axis, we get:
Components along X-axis: ?8 cos u8 and
area 1′ 2′ 3 4 is common to both the regions
?: cos u:
1 2 3 4 and 1′ 2′ 3′ 4′, therefore, it will not

Components along Y- axis : ?8 sin u8 and

experience any change in momentum.

?: sin u: . (where, u8 and u: are the

Obviously, then the changes in momentum
of the fluid masses in the sections 1 2 2′ 1′
and 4 3 3′ 4′ will have to be considered. inclinations with the horizontal of the
centre line of the pipe at 1-2 and 3-4).
∴ Components of force i along X-axis and
According to the principle of mass
conservation,
Y-axis are:
{|
xy z (@ ~•€ • %@ ~•€ • )
Fluid mass with the region 1 2 2′ 1′ = Fluid
mass within the region 4 3 3′ 4′ }
{| …
x‚ z (@ €ƒ„ • %@ €ƒ„ • )
…(bb)
Q8 >8 kf8 = Q: >: kf: }

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 Take the specific weight of air as 0.0116
kN/m3.
Eqn. (bb) represents the components of the
force exerted by the pipe bend on the fluid
mass.
Usually, we are interested in the forces by
the fluid on the pipe bend. Since action and
reaction are equal and opposite (Newton’s
third law of motion), the fluid mass would
exert the same force on the pipe bend but in
opposite direction and as such the force
components exerted by the fluid on the pipe Fig. 3.17.
bend are given as follows: Solution.
{|
xy z (@ ~•€ • %@ ~•€ • )
}
{| … …(cc) Refer to Fig. 3.17
x‚ z } (@ €ƒ„ • %@ €ƒ„ • )
Area at section, ‘1’ = 1 :
;
Area at section ‘2’ = 0.5 :
Since the dynamic forces (eqn. bb) must be

Velocity at section ‘1’, ?8 = 10 /f

supplemented by the static pressure forces
acting over the inlet and outlet sections,
Pressure at section ‘1’, 78 = 30 Ve/ :
therefore, we have:
{|
xy z (@ ~•€ • %@ ~•€ • )† # ~•€ • % # ~•€ •
}
{| … Sp. weight of air, •R = 0.0116 Ve/ W
x‚ z (@ €ƒ„ • %@ €ƒ„ • )† # €ƒ„ • % # €ƒ„ •
}
As per continuity equation
>8 ?8 = >: ?: ,
The magnitude of the resultant force acting
on the pipe bend,
# 8
?: = # ?8 = × 10 = 20 /f
i‡ = $iˆ: + i‰: ).,

Discharge,
" = >8 ?: = 1 × 10 = 10 W
/f
and, the direction of the resultant force with
X-axis,
i‰
u = tan%8 H I
Applying Bernoulli’s equation at sections
iˆ ‘1’ and ‘2’, we get;
78 ?8: 7: ?::
+ = +
• 2' • 2'
Example problems

(Since =8 = =: )
Problem 1
In a 45° bend a rectangular air duct of 1 m
78 ?8: ?::
7: = •R E + − F
•R 2' 2'
cross-sectional area is gradually reduced to
0.5 m area. Find the magnitude and
30 10: 20:
= 0.0116 × E + − F
direction of force required to hold the duct
0.0116 2 × 9.81 2 × 9.81
in position if the velocity of flow at 1 m2
section is 10 m/s, and pressure is 30 kN/m2.
= 28.82Ve/ :

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 i‡ : i‡ = $iˆ: + i‰: = &19.512 + 10.712
Magnitude and direction of force (resultant)

Force along X-axis: i‡ = 55. 50 `•

•" The direction of i‡ to X-axis is given by;
iˆ = (? − ?:ˆ ) + (78 >8 )ˆ + (7: >: )ˆ
' 8ˆ
i‰ 10.71
where, ?8ˆ = 10 /f , u = tan%8 H I = tan%8 H I
iˆ 19.51
?:ˆ = ?: cos 45° = 20 × 0.707
=5 . °
= 14.4 /f
(78 >8 )ˆ = 78 >8 = 30 × 1 = 30 Ve
Problem 2.

(7: >: )ˆ = −7: >: cos 45°

250 litres/sec. of water is flowing in a pipe
having a diameter of 300 mm. If the pipe is
= −29.82 × 0.5 × 0.707
bent by 135°, find the magnitude and

= −10.54Ve
direction of the resultant force on the bend.
The pressure of the water flowing is 400
(?8ˆ − ?:ˆ ) = (10 − 14.4)
no ).)88Ž×8) kN/m2. Take specific weight of water as
A •.+8 9.81 kN/m3. –— = 2. `•, ˜ = 55. °.
= −0.052 (Ans).

iˆ = −0.052 + 30 − 10.54 Problem 3.

= . . . `• (→) 360 litres per second of water is flowing in

a pipe. The pipe is bent by 120°. The pipe
Force along Y-axis: bend measures 360 mm × 240 mm and
•"
i‰ = ’? − ?:‰ “ + (78 >8 )‰ + (7: >: )‰
volume of the bend is 0.14 m3. The
' 8‰ pressure at the entrance is 73 kN/m2 and the

where, ?8‰ = 0 /f ,
exit is 2.4 m above the entrance section.

?:‰ = ?: sin 45° = 20 × 0.707

Find the force exerted on the bend.
–— = ... ” `•, ˜ = 5/. 5/°(Ans.)
= 14.4 /f
(78 >8 )‰ = 0
Problem 4.

(7: >: )‰ = −7: >: sin 45°

Fig. 3.18 shows a 90° reducer-bend through
which water flows. The pressure at the inlet
= −29.82 × 0.5 × 0.707
is 210 kN/m2 (gauge) where the cross-
sectional area is 0.01 m2. At the exit
= −10.54Ve section, the area is 0.0025 m2 and the
(?8ˆ − ?:ˆ ) = (0 − 14.4)
no ).)88Ž×8) velocity is 16 m/s. The pressure at the exit
A •.+8 is atmospheric. Determine the magnitude
= −0.17
bend. –— = 5. 2 `• ˜ = . . ° (Ans.)
and direction of the resultant force on the

i‰ = −0.17 + 0 − 10.54

= −. . ”. `•(↓)
Resultant force,

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 average velocity across the same section’. It is
denoted by α.
Mathematically,
œ•žŸl•N ŸžŸ 'P 7Ÿ fŸN¡žk ¢jfŸk ¡ž jNl£j¤ mŸ¤¡N•lP
›=
œ•žŸl•N ŸžŸ 'P 7Ÿ fŸN¡žk ¢jfŸk ¡ž jmŸ j'Ÿ mŸ¤¡N•lP

Fig. 3.18.
Problem 5.
Water enters a reducing pipe horizontally Fig. 3.19.
and comes out vertically in the downward
Refer to Fig. 3.19.
direction. If the inlet velocity is 5 m/s and
pressure is 80 kPa (gauge) and the Velocity profile
Let, £¥ = Average velocity at the section
diameters at the entrance and exit sections
are 30 cm and 20 cm respectively, calculate
the components of the reaction acting on LL,
the pipe and hence the magnitude and £ = Local or point or actual velocity,
k> = Elementary area, and
direction of the resultant force on the pipe.
–™ = ”. /5 `•, –š = /. `•, –— =
. `•, ˜ = 22. 2 ° .(Ans) > = Area of cross-section.
For the velocity variation across the section
LL of the stream tube the total K.E. for the
3.4.6. Kinetic energy and momentum
entire section is given as;
1 1 1
correction factors (Coriolis co-efficients)

œ. ¦ = £¥: = (Q>£¥)£¥ : = Q>£¥W

2 2 2
While deriving Bernoulli’s equation, it is
assumed that the velocity distribution across a
single stream tube is uniform. But if there is an True œ. ¦ for the entire cross-section
1 1
appreciable variation in the velocity
= § k . £: = § (Q. k>. £)£:
distribution (on account of viscous and
2 2
Q
boundary resistance) correction factors α and β

= § £W k>
have to be applied to obtain the exact amount of
2
kinetic energy or momentum available at a

Q
given cross-section.

2 ¨# £ W k> 1 £ W
›= Q = ¨ 6 ; k>
> £¥
Kinetic energy correction factor (α):
>£¥W
‘Kinetic energy correction factor’ is defined as 2
› = 1 for uniform velocity distribution and
the ratio of the kinetic energy of flow per second
based on actual velocity across a section to the
kinetic energy of flow per second based on tends to become greater than 1 as the

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 distribution of velocity becomes less and Note: Since majority of the flow
less uniform. situations are turbulent in character, the
usual practice is to assign unit value to α
α = 1.02 to 1.15 for turbulent flows. and β
α = 2 for laminar flow.
It may be noted that in most of the fluid
mechanics computations, α is taken as 1
without introducing much error, since the
velocity is a small percentage of the total
head.
Momentum correction factor (β):
‘Momentum correction factor’ is defined as
the ratio of momentum of the flow per
second based on actual velocity to the
momentum of the flow per second based on
average velocity across a section’. It is
denoted by β.
Mathematically,
ª¡ Ÿžl£ 7Ÿ fŸN¡žk ¢jfŸk ¡ž jNl£j¤ mŸ¤¡N•lP
©=
ª¡ Ÿžl£ 7Ÿ fŸN¡žk ¢jfŸk ¡ž jmŸ j'Ÿ mŸ¤¡N•lP

Refer to Fig. 3.19.

The momentum of fluid mass is
= £¥ = (Q>£¥)£¥ = Q>£¥:
The true momentum at the section LL is
given as:

§ k . £ = § (Qk>. £)£ = § Q£ : k>

«« «« #

¨# Q£ : k> 1 £ :
©= = ¨ 6 ; k>
Q>£¥: > £¥
© = 1 for uniform flow
© = 1.01 to 1.07 for turbulent flow in pipes,
and
W
© = = 1.33 for laminar flow in pipes
¬

The value of © may be greater for open

channel flow.
In most cases, © is taken as 1.

By: Ainebyona Joseph,

BSc. Civil Engineering (KAB, 2021).
54
Email: [Link]@[Link].
Tel: 0782464423/0704158769