Diploma in Chemical Engineering - 6th Semester

Unit-IV : Flow measurement

Subject : Instrumentation

GARGI DEY

Lecturer in Chemical Engineering

Hooghly Institute of Technology,

Hooghly

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 Venturimeter

The working of venturimeter is based on the principle of Bernoulli’s equation.

Bernoulli’s Statement: It states that in a steady, ideal flow of an incompressible fluid, the total energy at
any point of the fluid is constant. The total energy consists of pressure energy, kinetic energy and potential
energy or datum energy.
Mathematically

Here all the energies are taken per unit weight of the fluid.

The Bernoulli’s equation for the fluid passing through the section 1 and 2 are given by

Construction:
The construction of venturimeter is shown below:

It has three main parts

1. Short converging part: It is a tapered portion whose radius decreases as we move forward.
2. Throat: It is middle portion of the venturi. Here the velocity of the fluid increases and pressure decreases. It possesses
the least cross section area.
3. Diverging part: In this portion the fluid diverges.

Working principle:

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The venturimeter is used to measure the rate of flow of a fluid flowing through the pipes. Lets understand how it does
this measurement step by step.

Here we have considered two cross section, first at the inlet and the second one is at the throat. The difference in the
pressure heads of these two sections is used to calculate the rate of flow through venturimeter.
As the water enters at the inlet section i.e. in the converging part it converges and reaches to the throat.
The throat has the uniform cross section area and least cross section area in the venturimeter. As the water enters in the
throat its velocity gets increases and due to increase in the velocity the pressure drops to the minimum.
Now there is a pressure difference of the fluid at the two sections. At the section 1(i.e. at the inlet) the pressure of the
fluid is maximum and the velocity is minimum. And at the section 2 (at the throat) the velocity of the fluid is maximum
and the pressure is minimum.
The pressure difference at the two section can be seen in the manometer attached at both the section.
This pressure difference is used to calculate the rate flow of a fluid flowing through a pipe

Expression for the rate of flow through Venturimeter

Considered a venturimeter is fitted to a horizontal pipe through which fluid ( water) is flowing as shown in the figure
given below.

Let d1, p1, v1 & a1, are the diameter at the inlet, pressure at the inlet, velocity at the inlet and area at the cross
section 1.

And d2, p2, v2 and a2 are the corresponding values at section 2.

Applying bernoulli’s equation at sections 1 and 2

As the pipe is horizontal, so z1 = z2

Therefore

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(P1 – P2)/ρg is the difference of pressure heads at section 1 and 2 and it is equal to h. so

Substituting this value of h in equation (1), we get

Now applying continuity equation at section 1 and 2

Substituting this value of v1 in equation (2) and solving, we get

Discharge

Substituting value of v2 in above equation

Q is the theoretical discharge under ideal conditions. Actual discharge will be less than the theoretical discharge. The
actual discharge is given by the formula

Where Cd is the coefficient of venturimeter and its value is less than 1.

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5
An orifice meter is a conduit and a restriction to create a pressure drop. An hour glass is a
form of orifice. A nozzle, venturi or thin sharp edged orifice can be used as the flow restriction.
In order to use any of these devices for measurement it is necessary to empirically calibrate
them. That is, pass a known volume through the meter and note the reading in order to
provide a standard for measuring other quantities.

Due to the ease of duplicating and the simple construction, the thin sharp edged orifice has
been adopted as a standard and extensive calibration work has been done so that it is widely
accepted as a standard means of measuring fluids. Provided the standard mechanics of
construction are followed no further calibration is required.
An orifice in a pipeline is shown in figure with a manometer for measuring the drop in pressure
(differential) as the fluid passes through the orifice. The minimum cross sectional area of the
jet is known as the “vena-contracta.

\working principle

As the fluid approaches the orifice the pressure increases slightly and then drops suddenly as the orifice
is passed. It continues to drop until the “vena contracta” is reached and then gradually increases until at
approximately 5 to 8 diameters downstream a maximum pressure point is reached that will be lower
than the pressure upstream of the orifice.

The decrease in pressure as the fluid passes thru the orifice is a result of the increased velocity of the
gas passing thru the reduced area of the orifice.

When the velocity decreases as the fluid leaves the orifice the pressure increases and tends to return to
its original level. All of the pressure loss is not recovered because of friction and turbulence losses in
the stream.

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The pressure drop across the orifice increases when the rate of flow increases. When there is no flow
there is no differential. The differential pressure is proportional to the square of the velocity, it therefore
follows that if all other factors remain constant, then the differential is proportional to the square of the
rate of flow.

BETA RATIO is the ratio of orifice plate bore divided by pipe I.D. is referred to as the Beta Ratio or
d/D where d is the plate bore and D is the pipe I.D.

The orifice plate bore can be made in many configurations to handle various flow measurement jobs.
The flowing conditions should be checked to see which of the configurations is suitable for each
measurement job

Depending on the type of obstruction, we can have different types of flow meters. Most common
among them is the orifice type flowmeter, where an orifice plate is placed in the pipe line, as
shown in fig.below. If d1 and d2 are the diameters of the pipe line and the orifice opening, then
the flow rate can be obtained using eqn. (3) by measuring the pressure difference (p1-p2).

Flow profile
Orifice Plate Vena Contacta

Flow

The flow expression obtained from eqn.(3) is not an accurate expression in the actual case, and
some correction factor, named as discharge co-efficient (Cd) has to be incorporated in (3), as
Q v2 A2 Cd A2 2g
( p1 p )2
4
Cd is defined as the 1
ratio of the actual
flow and the ideal
flow and is always
less than one.

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 Pitot Tube
Principle: The pitot tube is a differential pressure measuring device. The pitot tube installed in the flow
stream measures the direct pressure at the contact pitot tube hole and a second measurement is required,
being of static pressure. The difference between the two measurements gives a value for dynamic pressure.
he pitot tube is a differential pressure measuring device. The pitot tube installed in the flow stream
measures the direct pressure at the contact pitot tube hole and a second measurement is required, being of
static pressure. The difference between the two measurements gives a value for dynamic pressure

The Pitot tube is inserted into the duct with the tip pointed toward the airflow. The positive port of the
manometer is connected to the total pressure port (Pt) and the negative to the static pressure port (Ps). The
manometer will then display velocity pressure which can be converted to velocity. A pitot tube is
a tube within a tube. The inside tube is open to the air at the tip of the tube (total pressure), and the
outside tube is open on the sides of the tube (static pressure). To measure static pressure with a pitot
tube, you use only the static pressure port and ignore the total pressure port.
For a fluid with known density and measured difference between stagnation pressure and static pressure
(ΔP), as measured with a pitot tube, the fluid velocity can be calculated with the equation: V = (2ΔP/ρ) 1/2.

The liquid flows up the tube and when equilibrium is attained, the liquid reaches a height above the free
surface of the water stream.

Since the static pressure, under this situation, is equal to the hydrostatic pressure due to its depth below the
free surface, the difference in level between the liquid in the glass tube and the free surface becomes the
measure of dynamic pressure. Therefore, we can write, neglecting friction,

(a) (b)

Pitot Tube (a) tube for measuring the Stagnation Pressure

(b) Static and Stagnation tubes together

For an open stream of liquid with a free surface, this single tube is suffcient to determine the
velocity. But for a fluid flowing through a closed duct, the Pitot tube measures only the stagnation
pressure and so the static pressure must be measured separately.
Measurement of static pressure in this case is made at the boundary of the wall (Fig.C). The axis of
the tube measuring the static pressure must be perpendicular to the boundary and free from burrs,

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 so that the boundary is smooth and hence the streamlines adjacent to it are not curved. This is done
to sense the static pressure only without any part of the dynamic pressure.
A Pitot tube is also inserted as shown (Fig.C) to sense the stagnation pressure. The ends of the
Pitot tube, measuring the stagnation pressure, and the piezometric tube, measuring the static
pressure, may be connected to a suitable differential manometer for the determination of flow
velocity and hence the flow rate.

The tubes recording static pressure and the stagnation pressure (Fig.c) are usually combined into
one instrument known as Pitot static tube

Fig C Pitot Static Tube

The tube for sensing the static pressure is known as static tube which surrounds the pitot tube that
measures the stagnation pressure.
Two or more holes are drilled radially through the outer wall of the static tube into annular space.
The position of these static holes is important. Downstream of the nose N, the flow is accelerated
somewhat with consequent reduction in static pressure. But in front of the supporting stem, there is
a reduction in velocity and increase in pressure.
The static holes should therefore be at the position where the two opposing effects are
counterbalanced and the reading corresponds to the undisturbed static pressure. Finally the flow
velocity is given by

where ∆p is the difference between stagnation and static pressures.

The factor C takes care of the non-idealities, due to friction, in converting the dynamic head into
pressure head and depends, to a large extent, on the geometry of the pitot tube. The value of C is
usually determined from calibration test of the pitot tube.

Rotameter
The orificemeter, Venturimeter and flow nozzle work on the principle of constant area variable
pressure drop. Here the area of obstruction is constant, and the pressure drop changes with flow
rate. On the other hand Rotameter works as a constant pressure drop variable area meter. It can
be only be used in a vertical pipeline. Its accuracy is also less (2%) compared to other types of

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flow meters. But the major advantages of rotameter are, it is simple in construction, ready to install
and the flow rate can be directly seen on a calibrated scale, without the help of any other device,
e.g. differential pressure sensor etc. Moreover, it is useful for a wide range of variation of flow
rates (10:1).

The basic construction of a rotameter is shown in fig. 7. It consists of a vertical pipe, tapered
downward. The flow passes from the bottom to the top. There is cylindrical type metallic float
inside the tube. The fluid flows upward through the gap between the tube and the float. As the
float moves up or down there is a change in the gap, as a result changing the area of the orifice.
In fact, the float settles down at a position, where the pressure drop across the orifice will create
an upward thrust that will balance the downward force due to the gravity. The position of the
float is calibrated with the flow rate.

Float p2 Tapered pipe

p1

Orifice area

Flow
Basic construction of a rotameter.
Let us consider,

1 = Specific weight of the float

2 = specific weight of the fluid

v f = volume of the float

Af = Area of the float.
At = Area of the tube at equilibrium (corresponding to the dotted line)

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 From equation (4), for incompressible fluid, we have, for the orifice,
Cd A2 2g
Q ( p1 p )2
A2 2 2
1 ( )
A
/1
A
/ Notches and Weirs

A notch or a weir is a convenient device for the measurement of discharge in an open channel. A notch or a weir is an
obstruction provided in a channel that causes the water to rise behind it so that the water is made to flow through it or over it.
The rate of flow can be determined by measuring the height of the upstream water level.
Basically there is no difference between a notch and a weir, except that a notch is of small size while a weir is of
large size. A notch is usually made of metal plate whereas a weir is made of masonry or concrete.
Weirs may be classified in many ways. They can be classified as rectangular, triangular and trapezoidal weirs
based on the geometry of flow section. They can be classified into sharp crested and broad-crested weirs based
on the sharpness of the crest. They can be classified into straight and curved weirs based on their shape in plan.
They can be classified into waste weirs and gauging weirs based on the purpose for which they are provided.
A waste weir is provided for discharging the surplus quantity of discharge from a reservoir. A gauging weir is
meant for gauging the rate of flow of water. Weirs may also be classified into suppressed weirs and weirs with
lateral contraction.

Classification of Notches:
1. The Rectangular Notch:

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2.The Triangular Notch or V-Notch:

3. The Trapezoidal Notch:

Consider a trapezoidal notch whose crest length is l and the sides are at θ with the vertical. Let H be the head of
water over the crest.
In this case the notch may be taken to consist of a rectangular notch of length l and a triangular notch subtending
an angle 2θ.

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Advantages of a Triangular Notch over Rectangular Notch:
A triangular notch has certain advantages over the rectangular notch when used as a gauging device in a
hydraulic laboratory.
(i) The coefficient of discharge for a triangular notch is practically independent of the head. This is because,
for all heads the ratio of the head to the wetted length or crest is constant. But in a rectangular notch the
ratio of the head to the wetted length crest is not constant. Hence for a rectangular notch the coefficient
of discharge is not actually a constant but is a function of the head over the notch.

(ii) When the discharge rate is small a triangular notch provides a greater head than the rectangular notch.
Hence head measurement can be done more accurately over the triangular notch than over the
rectangular notch.

(iii) When the discharge rate is small, there are chances of a clinging nappe to be formed when a
rectangular notch is used. But for the same discharge over the triangular notch the head will be greater
and the clinging nappe will be avoided.

Electromagnetic Flowmeter
Electromagnetic flowmeter is different from all other flowmeters due to its uniqueness on severalaccounts.
The advantages of this

1. It gives complete linear output in form of voltage.

2. The output is unaffected by changes in pressure, temperature and viscosity of the fluid.

3.Reverse flow can also be measured.

4.Flow velocity as low as 10-6m/sec can be measured.

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 Electrodes
e0 v

B
V e0

Electromagnetic flowmeters are suitable for measurement of velocity of conducting (Mercury)

and weakly conducting (water) liquid. The basic principle of operation can be understood from
fig. 10. It works on the principle of basic electromagnetic induction; i.e. when a conductor moves
along a magnetic field perpendicular to the direction of flow, a voltage would be induced
perpendicular to the direction of movement as also to the magnetic filed. The flowing liquid acts
like a conductor. External magnetic field is applied perpendicular to the direction of the flow and
two electrodes are flushed on the wall of the pipeline as shown. The expression for the voltage
induced is given by:
eo Bl v

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where l is the length of the conductor (diameter d in this case) and v is the velocity of the liquid.
The above expression shows the complete relationship between the voltage induced and the
velocity. However, the magnetic field applied is not d.c. if the liquid medium is water or any
other polarizable liquid. This is because, if the magnetic field is d.d. the voltage induced will
also be d.c. and a small amount of d.c. current will flow if a measuring circuit is connected to
the terminals. This small d.c. current will cause electrolysis; oxygen and hydrogen bubbles will
be formed and they will stick to the electrodes surfaces for some time. This will provide an
insulating layer on the electrodes surfaces that will disrupt the voltage generation process. As a
result, the magnetic field applied for these cases is a.c., or pulsed d.c. excitation. The meter can
only be used for liquids having moderate conductivities (more than 10 mho / cm ). As a result,
it is not suitable for gases or liquid hydrocarbons. The accuracy is around 1% .

Turbine mass flowmeters

Principle:
The Turbine Flow meter Principle is used for the measurement of liquid gas and gases of very low
flow rate. It works on the principle of turbine. It consists of a multibladed rotor (called turbine
wheel) which is mounted 90° to the axis of the flowing liquid as shown in Fig.

Impeller-Turbine Mass Flow Meters:

The impeller, turbine type mass flow meter uses two rotating elements in the fluid stream, an
impeller and a turbine. Both elements contain channels through which the fluid flows.

The impeller is driven at a constant speed by a synchronous motor through a magnetic

coupling and imparts an angular velocity to the fluid as it flows through the meter.

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The turbine located downstream of the impeller eliminates all the angular momentum of the
fluid and, therefore, receives a torque proportional to the angular momentum.

This turbine is constrained by a spring that deflects through an angle that is proportional to
the torque exerted on it by the fluid, which gives a measure of mass flow.

Twin-Turbine Mass Flow Meter:

In this instrument two turbines are mounted on a common shaft.

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As shown in the above figure, a twin-turbine mass flow meter in which two turbines are
connected with a calibration torsion member. A reluctance type pick up is mounted over each
turbine and a strong magnet is located in each turbine within the twinturbine assembly.

Each turbine is designed with a different blade angle; therefore, there is a tendency for the
turbines to rotate at different angular speeds.

However, since the movement of the turbines is restricted by the coupling torque, the entire
assembly rotates in unison at an average speed, and an angular phase shift between the two
turbines develops. This angle is a direct function of the angular momentum of the fluid.

The angular momentum is a function of mass flow. In the double turbine

assembly, the turbines are not restricted by a spring, but the torsion member that
holds them together is twisted. Therefore, the angle developed between the two
turbines is a direct function of the torsion or torsion exerted by the system.

Nutating disk Meters

These are the widely used positive displacement type flow meters. They consist of a
movable disk which is positioned on a concentric sphere situated inside a spherical side-
walled unit. Universally, they are employed as residential water meters.

They exist in various sizes and capacities and can be constructed from a wide range of
materials. Their typical size range varies from 5/8-in to 2-in sizes. They are ideal for
pressure ranges around 150-psig with an upper limit of 300 psig.

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Liquid enters a precision-machined chamber containing a disc which nutates
(wobbles). The position of the disc divides the chamber into compartments
containing an exact volume. Liquid pressure drives the disc to wobble and a roller
cam causes the nutating disc to make a complete cycle.

This motion is translated into rotary motion by means of a ball and shaft, which is
attached to the disc. The movements of the disc are transmitted by gear train to an
indicator/totalizer or pulse transmitter.

There are inherently more leakage paths in this design and it tends to be used
where longer flow meter life is required rather than high performance; however,
close clearances between the disc and chamber ensure minimum leakage for
accurate and repeatable measure of each volume cycle.
A disc attached to a sphere is mounted inside a spherical chamber. As fluid flows
through the chamber, the disc and sphere unit nutates. The nutation causes a pin,
mounted on the sphere perpendicular to the disc, to rock.
Each revolution of the pin indicates a fixed volume of liquid has passed. A
mechanical or electromagnetic sensor detects the rocking of the pin and the flow is
measured.

Electromagnetic Flow Meters

Principle of Magnetic Flow Meter Based on Faraday’s Law

Magnetic flow meters works based on Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction. According to
this principle, when a conductive medium passes through a magnetic field B, a voltage E is
generated which is proportional to the velocity v of the medium, the density of the magnetic field
and the length of the conductor.

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In a magnetic flow meter, a current is applied to wire coils mounted within or outside the
meter body to generate a magnetic field. The liquid flowing through the pipe acts as the
conductor and this induces a voltage which is proportional to the average flow velocity.

This voltage is detected by sensing electrodes mounted in the Magflow meter body and
sent to a transmitter which calculates the volumetric flow rate based on the pipe
dimensions.

Mathematically, we can state Faraday’s law as

E is proportional to V x B x L

[E is the voltage generated in a conductor, V is the velocity of the conductor, B is the

magnetic field strength and L is the length of the conductor].

It is very important that the liquid flow that is to be measured using the magnetic flow meter
must be electrically conductive. The Faraday’s Law indicates that the signal voltage (E) is
dependent on the average liquid velocity (V), the length of the conductor (D) and the
magnetic field strength (B). The magnetic field will thus be established in the cross-section
of the tube.

Basically when the conductive liquid flows through the magnetic field, voltage is induced. To
measure this generated voltage (which is proportional to the velocity of the flowing liquid),
two stainless steel electrodes are used which are mounted opposite each other.

The two electrodes which are placed inside the flow meter are then connected to an
advanced electronic circuit that has the ability to process the signal. The processed signal is
fed into the microprocessor that calculates the volumetric flow of the liquid.

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 Limitations of electromagnetic Flow Meters

(i) The substance being measured must be conductive. Therefore, it can’t be employed for
metering the flow rate of gases and steam, petroleum products and similar liquids having
very low conductivity.

(ii) To render the meter insensitive to variations in the resistance of liquid, the effective
resistance of the liquid between the electrodes should not exceed 1% of the impedance of
the external circuit.

(iii) It is a very expensive device.

(iv) As the meter always measures the volume rate, the volume of any suspended matter in
the liquid will be included.

(v) To avoid any trouble which would be caused by entrained air, when the flow tube is
installed in a horizontal pipe-line, the electrodes should be on the horizontal diameter.

(vi) As a zero check on the installation can be performed only by stopping the flow, isolating
valves are required and a bypass may also be necessary through which the flow may be
directed during a zero check.

(vii) The pipe must run full, in case regulating valves are installed upstream of the meter.

Advantages of Electromagnetic Flow Meter

(i) The obstruction to the flow is almost nil and therefore this type of meters can be used for
measuring heavy suspensions, including mud, sewage and wood pulp.

ii) There is no pressure head loss in this type of flow meter other than that of the length of
straight pipe which the meter occupies.

(iii) They are not very much affected by upstream flow disturbances.

(iv) They are practically unaffected by variation in density, viscosity, pressure and
temperature.

(v) Electric power requirements can be low (15 or 20 W), particularly with pulsed DC types.

(vi) These meters can be used as bidirectional meters.

(vii) The meters are suitable for most acids, bases, water and aqueous solutions because
the lining materials selected are not only good electrical insulators but also are corrosion
resistant.

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 Ultrasonic flow meters

The term ‘ultrasonic’ 1refers to the signals (usually are short bursts of sine waves) whose frequency is
above the range audible to human hearing which is 20 to 20000 Hz.

Principle
The ultrasonic flow meter operates on the principle that the velocity of sound in a
fluid in motion is the resultant of the velocity of sound in the fluid at rest plus or
minus the velocity of the fluid itself.

Types of Ultrasonic Flow Meters

1. Transit time flow meters

2. Doppler Flow meter.

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As the name implies these devices measure flow by measuring the time taken by
an ultrasonic energy pulse to traverse a pipe section, both with and against the
flow of the liquid within the pipe. Fig. 1 shows a transit time flow meter.

The time (tAB) for the ultrasonic energy to go from transducer A to transducer B
is given by the expression:

tAB = L/(C + V. cos θ)

The time (tBA) to go from B to A is given by

tBA = L/(C – V.cos θ)

where C is the speed of sound in the fluid, L is the acoustic path length in the
fluid,
θ is the angle of the path with respect to the pipe axis.

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By combining and simplifying, it can be shown that for V << C :

∆t = tBA – tAB = 2.L.V. cos θ/C

It can be shown that :

V = C.∆t/2 L cos θ

Since the cross sectional area of the pipe section or ‘spool pipe’ is known, the
product of area and velocity will yield the volumetric flow rate.

Doppler Flow Meters

This type of flow meter is based on Doppler principle.

The transmitter of a Doppler flow meter projects an ultrasonic beam at a

frequency of about 0.5 MHz into the flowing stream and deflects the reflected
frequency.

The difference between transmitted and reflected velocities is called the ‘beat
frequency’ and is related to the velocity of the reflecting surfaces (solid particles
and gas bubbles) in the process stream.

Principle of Operation

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As shown in Fig.3, an ultrasonic 2 wave is projected at an angle through the pipe
wall into the liquid by a transmitting crystal in a transducer mounted outside the
pipe.

Part of the energy is reflected by bubbles or particles in the liquid and is returned
through the pipe wall to a receiving crystal.

If the reflectors are travelling at the fluid velocity, the frequency of the reflected
wave is shifted according to the Doppler principle, in proportion to the flow
velocity.

Combining Snell’s law and Doppler equation, the flow velocity can be determined
as follows if V << C.

V = ∆f.Ct /(2.fo .cos θ) = ∆f.K

where ∆f = Difference between transmitted and received frequency, fo=

frequency of transmission, Ct = Velocity of sound in the transducer. θ = angle of
the transmitter and receiver crystal with respect to the pipe axis,

As shown in equation, velocity is a linear function of ∆f. Since the inside diameter
(ID) of the pipe is known, volumetric flow rate can be measured as a function of V
and square of ID

Advantages:

Ultrasonic meters are made up of no moving parts.

They experience no pressure loss.
They endow with maintenance-free operation. It is a key advantage as compared
to conventional mechanical meters such as positive displacement meters,
turbines etc.
Furthermore, Ultrasonic flowmeters are consistently more accurate and reliable
than a lot of other metering systems.
With the emergence of 3-beam ultrasonic, all other flowmeters like mass, vortex,
positive displacement and turbine flowmeters which are used to measure non-
conductive fluids, have been successfully replaced by ultrasonic meters.

Disadvantages:

Still problematic for liquid and gas measurements

Sound beam must traverse a representative cross section, therefore flow
profile dependent. Long inlet and outlet sections required
Errors due to deposits

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 Transit time meters require clean liquids
Doppler meters only for slight contamination or few gas bubbles
Doppler meters affected by sound velocity changes due to temperature,
density and concentration
Unsuitable for heavily contaminated liquidsGas bubbles cause errors

Applications

Ultrasonic flowmeters are perfect for wastewater applications or any other dirty
liquid which is conductive or water based.
Ultrasonic flowmeters normally does not work with distilled water or drinking
water. Aerations would be needed in the clean liquid applications.
Ultrasonic flowmeters are also best suited for applications where low pressure
drop, chemical compatibility, and low maintenance are involved.

Thermal flow meter (Mass Flow Meter)

Principle:
It works on the principle of thermal conductivity

Construction: Thermal flowmeters 2 are very popular for the measurement of unsteady flow of
gases, and can be used to measure flow rate in terms of mass, which is a very desirable feature,
especially on gas service.

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There are two types of thermal flowmeters:

1. Heat Transfer Flowmeters

2. Hot-Wire Flow meters

Heat Transfer Flowmeters

This type of flowmeter measures the rise in the temperature of the fluid after a known amount of heat
has been added to it. Its theory is based upon the specific heat equation which is given as,

Q = W Cp (T2 - T1)

Where Q= heat transfer, W= mass flow rate of fluid Cp= Specific heat of the fluid
T1 = initial temperature of fluid after heat has been transferred
T2 = final temperature of fluid after heating the fluid.

CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING

A schematic diagram of a heat transfer flowmeter is shown in Fig. (a), which consists of an electric
immersion heater for the heating of flowing fluid.
Two thermocouples (or resistance thermometers) TI and T2 are placed at each side of the heater as
in Fig (a).
The thermocouple TI measures the temperature of fluid before it is heated, while the thermocouple
T2 measures the temperature so after.
The power supply to the heater equals the heat transferred to the fluid, i e. Q, and is measured by a
wattmeter. Thus by measuring the values of Q, TI and T2 the flow rate W of liquid is determined from
the above equation.
This type of flowmeter has disadvantages in that the temperature sensor and the heater are directly
placed into the fluid stream, and thus, they are easily damaged by corrosion and erosion.
Furthermore, large input power is required to measure high flow rates. These disadvantages are
overcome by mounting the heater, and upstream and downstream temperature sensors (TI and T2)
on the outside of the piping. But it results in non-linear response.

Hot-Wire Flow meters

This type of flowmeter measures the effect of the flowing fluid on a hot body.
A hot-wire flowmeter consists of two thermocouples, A and B, connected in series to form a
thermopile.
A third thermocouple C is placed in the output circuit of the thermopile, as shown in Fig. (b). The
thermopile is heated by passing an alternating current to it.
The alternating current does not pass through the third thermocouple and it is therefore not
electrically heated.
The whole assembly is placed into the fluid (usually gas) stream whose flow rate is to be
determined. The fluid (gas) cools the heated thermopile by convection, and since the input power to
the thermopile is held constant, the thermopile attains an equilibrium temperature and produces an
emf that is a function of the temperature of the gas, velocity of the gas, and its density, specific heat,
and thermal conductivity.
The third thermocouple (unheated) attains the ambient temperature of the gas, generating an emf
that is proportional to the gas temperature and which cancels the effect of the ambient gas
temperature on the output signal of the heated thermopile.

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The output voltage signal of this type of instrument is given by the equation.

Where E= voltage generated, C= instrument constant, K= thermal conductivity of fluid,

Cp= specific heat of fluid, d= diameter of heated thermocouple wire,
V=velocity of fluid and 𝜌 = density of the flowing fluid

It can be designed to work with pressure upto 1200 psig (8.3 MPa).

Advantages:

Thermal flow meters have no moving parts, which reduces maintenance and permits the use in
demanding application areas, including saturated gas.
Gas mass meters calculate mass flow rather than volumetric flow and do not require temperature or
pressure correction, which means there is no additional expense for the purchase and installation of
additional equipment.
Thermal flowmeters provide excellent accuracy and repeatability over a wide range of flow rates.
Thermal mass flow meters can measure flow in large pipes.

Disadvantages:

Gas mass meter use is limited to clean, non abrasive fluids

Presence of moisture or droplets can lead to measurement inaccuracy
Thermal properties must be known: variation from calibrated values can cause inaccuracies
Relatively high initial cost

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