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Basic Syntax: A Handbook for Undergraduate Students of English

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 Penerbit
LPPM
Universitas Negeri Semarang

BASIC SYNTAX
A Handbook for Undergraduate Student of English

Written by

Arif Suryo Priyatmojo

 BASIC SYNTAX
A Handbook for Undergraduate Student of English
ii
 BASIC SYNTAX
A Handbook for Undergraduate Student of English

Arif Suryo Priyatmojo

iii
BASIC SYNTAX
A Handbook for Undergraduate Student of English
Arif Suryo Priyatmojo
Editor: Arif Suryo Priyatmojo
Tata Letak: Thomas Sugeng Hariyoto
Desain Sampul: Thomas Sugeng Hariyoto

Hak Cipta © 2019

LPPM Universitas Negeri Semarang
Gedung Prof. Retno Sriningsih Satmoko Lantai 2
Kampus Sekaran Gunungpati Semarang
Kode Pos: 50229
Telp: (024) 8508089 Fax: (024)8508089
Email: lppm@[Link]

Priyatmojo, Arif Suryo

BASIC SYNTAX
A Handbook for Undergraduate Student of English
---Semarang: LPPM Unnes, 2019
xii + 102 hlm; 23 cm
ISBN 978-623-7263-73-9

iv
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

English Syntax is addressed to the students of

education and literature study programs who have passed
previous grammar classes. The grammar classes are Word
and Phrased Grammar, Clause Grammar, Sentence Grammar
and Text Grammar. This book focuses on how the students
are able to analyze sentence construction.
The book may be different from other text books
explaining syntactical analysis as it starts from the most
general description about sentence followed by more detailed
description about smaller units of languages started from
words, phrases, and clauses based on form and function
classes. Also, the students are introduced with two techniques
of sentence analysis; they are tree-diagram and bracketing.
It is a prerequisite subject, so the students should
follow the materials and exercises by units. They are not
allowed to learn a new unit before completing the previous
discussion. Each unit is accompanied by exercise, summary
and evaluation.
Hopefully, this text book will give three
significances for the students. First, it can improve students‟
understanding about parts of a sentence. Hence, the students
will not find difficulties when they are constructing academic
writings. Then, the book can also be a self-assessment for the
students as it is accompanied by exercises and evaluation.
Finally, this book enables the students to do analysis for other
sentence constructions from other sources.
Semarang, August 2019

Writer

v
vi
 TABLE OF CONTENT

Cover ............................................................................... i
Acknowledgement .......................................................... v
Table of Content .............................................................. vii
List of Table .................................................................... viii
List of Figure .................................................................. ix
Unit 1 Lesson Plan and Description .............................. 17
Unit 2 Grammar ............................................................ 33
Unit 3 Sentences and Their Parts .................................... 43
Unit 4 Words ................................................................... 57
Unit 5 Phrases.................................................................. 65
Unit 6 Clauses ................................................................. 77
Unit 7 Subordination and Coordination .......................... 95
Bibliography .................................................................... 103

vii
 LIST OF TABLE

Table 1. Hierarchy and rank ........................................... 45

Table 2. Element of Noun Phrase, Adjective Phrase
and Adverbial Phrase ....................................... 51
Table 3. Element of Verb Phrase ..................................... 52
Table 4. Element of Prepositional Phrase........................ 52
Table 5. Open Word Class .............................................. 57
Table 6. Closed Word ...................................................... 58
Table 7. Basic Structure of Phrases ................................ 65
Table 8. Basic structure of verb phrase .......................... 66
Table 9. Details of adverbial usage ................................ 79
Table 10. Finite and Non-finite ...................................... 83
Table 11. Verb Forms Types ........................................... 84
Table 12. How to identify adverbial clauses ................... 98

viii
 LIST OF FIGURE

Figure 1. The relationship between three components .... 35

ix
x
Course: English Syntax Semester: V Credit Hour: 2 Course Code: 15J00193
Study Program: Education Lecturer: Arif Suryo Priyatmojo, [Link]., M. Pd
& Literature
Learning Outcome - Internalizing the spirit of independence, struggle and entrepreneurship;
- Mastering the principles and current issues in the structure of English sentences and related
linguistics components;
- Using English sentences for communication and work effectively both individually and
multidisciplinary or multicultural teams;
- Formulating alternative solutions to solve English problems by taking into account the
situation and related fctors in classroom learning
Course Outcome Students understand sentence construction with elements and are able to use sentences in
effective communications both spoken and written.
Course Description This course focuses on sentence constructions with elements by principles, procedure and
process of constructing and analyzing words, phrases, clauses and sentences.

1
 Approach,
Learning Learning
Week Method and Time Assessment
Outcome Materials
Technique
Technique Indicator Precentage
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
 Understanding - Definition
the role of of
grammar and Grammar
language - Introductio
communication. n to
 Describing the Syntax - Discussion Completeness
1 definition of - Parts of - Discovery 2x50 Written/spoken and correct 5%
sentence, kinds speech Learning explanation
of sentences, and - Kinds of
sentence sentences
components - Componen
ts of a
sentence
 Describing the Written/spoken
The units of
hierarchy of
grammar:
grammar units: - Discussion Completeness
- sentence,
2 sentence, clause, - Problem Based 2x50 and correct 5%
- clause,
phrase, and word Learning explanation
- phrase,
- word

2
  Describing the Written/spoken
idea of The concept of
grammatical grammatical Blended with
analysis and analysis [Link]
doing analysis by - Discussion Completeness
3 use of Grammatical - Problem Based 2x50 and correct 10%
grammatical notations: Learning explanation
notations, both bracketing - Sentence
bracketing system and tree analysis
system and tree diagram system
diagram system
Grammatical Written/spoken Completeness
 Using
tests: and correct
grammatical tests
expansion tests, explanation
for parsing
substitution
phrases .i.e. Blended with
tests,
expansion tests, [Link]
substraction
substitution tests, - Discussion
tests,
4 substraction - Problem Based 2x50 10%
movement tests
tests,movement Learning
Forms and
tests - Sentence
functions of
 Describing forms analysis
grammatical
and functions in
units in
grammatical
grammatical
analysis
analysis

3
  Identifying word Written/spoken Completeness
The
classes i.e. open and correct
classification
word classes and explanation
of words: open
closed word
word classes
classes - Discussion
and closed
5  Identifying the - Problem Based 2x50 5%
word classes
open word Learning
classes: N, V, Aj,
Open word
Av
classes: N, V,
Aj, Av
Written/spoken Completeness
 Identifying the and correct
closed word Closed word explanation
classes i.e. classes:
determiners, determiners,
Blended with
pronouns, pronouns,
[Link]
enumerators, enumerators,
6 - Discussion 2x50 10%
prepositions, prepositions,
- Problem Based
conjunctions, conjunctions,
Learning
operator-verbs, operator-verbs,
interjections, and interjections,
particles and particles

4
  Identifying the - Completeness
The phrases:
phrases i.e. and correct
Forms/kinds of Blended with
forms/kinds of explanation
phrases: NP, [Link]
phrases and
VP, AjP, AvP, - Discussion
7 functions of 2x50 Written/spoken 10%
PP, GP - Problem Based
phrases in clause
Learning
construction
Functions of - Phrase analysis
phrases

 Identifying form Completeness

and function and correct
labels for explanation
Form and
grammatical
function labels
notations in
in grammatical - Discussion
sentence analysis
analysis - Problem Based
8  Understanding 2x50 Written/spoken 5%
Learning
the idea of
Subordinations - Phrase analysis
subordinations at
at the level of
the level of
phrases
phrases

MID-TEST
9 2x50 written test

5
  Understanding Written/spoken - Completeness
the concept of and correct
The clauses
clauses, kinds Blended with explanation
Kinds of clauses
of clauses. i.e. [Link]
Main clauses
main clauses - Discussion
10 and subordinate 2x50 5%
and subordinate - Problem Based
clauses
clauses Learning
Elements of
 Identifying the - Clause analysis
clauses
elements of
clauses
 Describing Written/spoken - Completeness
finite and non- Finite and non- and correct
finite finite explanation
constructions constructions
 Identifying
- Discussion
finite verb Finite verb
- Problem Based
phrases and phrases and non-
Learning
11 non-finite verb finite verb 2x50 10%
- Clause and
phrases phrases
sentence
 Describing
analysis
clause Clause structures
structures of of declaratives,
declaratives, imperatives,
imperatives, active-passive
active-passive

6
  Describing and Written/spoken - Completeness
applying the and correct
major clause The major clause explanation
patterns of patterns of Blended with
English English [Link]
 Understanding - Discussion
12 the idea of Constructions by - Problem Based 2x50 5%
constructions use of Learning
by use of coordination and - Clause/sentence
coordination subordination analysis
and
subordination

Written/spoken - Completeness
 Using and correct
subordination at Subordination at explanation
the level of the level of
- Discussion
clauses clauses
- Problem Based
13 Learning 2x50 5%
 Understanding Direct and
- Clause/sentence
the idea of indirect
analysis
direct and subordination
indirect
subordinations

7
 Written/spoken - Completeness
 Identifying Blended with and correct
finite and non- Finite and non- [Link] explanation
finite clauses finite clauses - Discussion
14  Doing analysis - Problem Based 2x50 10%
on various Analysis on Learning
kinds of various clauses - Clause/sentence
clauses/sentenc analysis
es

 Identifying and
applying Skeleton
- Discussion
skeleton analysis: phrases
- Problem Based Completeness
analysis: and clauses
15 Learning 2x50 Written/spoken and correct 5%
phrases and
- Cause/sentence explanation
clauses/sentenc Omission of
analysis
es conjunctions
 Using omission
of conjunctions
16 FINAL TEST

8
 Assignment & Assessment
Week Learning
Materials Assessment Time Assessment Indicator Percentage

- Definition of
1 Grammar Independent Students learn 1x2x60 Portofolio completeness 40%
- Introduction the materials
to Syntax about grammar
- Parts of
speech
- Kinds of
sentences
- Components
of a sentence

completeness
Structured Students define 1x2x60 Portofolio 60%
grammar based
on some
perspective:
descriptive ad
prescriptive
grammar

9
 completeness
2 The units of Independent Students learn 1x2x60 Portofolio 40%
grammar: about unit of
- sentence, grammar
- clause,
- phrase,
- word
-
Students analyze completeness
Structured parts of 1x2x60 Portofolio 60%
sentences

The concept of completeness

3 grammatical Independent Students learn 1x2x60 Portofolio 40%
analysis about
grammatical
Grammatical notations:
notations: bracketing and
bracketing system tree diagram
and tree diagram
system

10
 completeness
Structured Students 1x2x60 Portofolio 60%
describe
sentences using
grammatical
notations
completeness
4 Forms and Independent Students learn 1x2x60 Portofolio 40%
functions of about forms and
grammatical units functions
in grammatical
analysis
Students analyze completeness
Structured forms and 1x2x60 Portofolio 60%
functions of
sentences
The classification completeness
5 of words: open Independent Students learn 1x2x60 Portofolio 40%
word classes and about open word
closed word classes
classes
Open word
classes: N,V,Aj,
Av

11
 Students completeness
Structured describe form 1x2x60 Portofolio 60%
and function in
sentences
Closed word Students learn completeness
6 classes: Independent about close 1x2x60 Portofolio 40%
determiners, word classed
pronouns,
enumerators,
prepositions,
conjunctions,
operator-verbs,
interjections, and
particles
completeness
Structured Students 1x2x60 Portofolio 60%
identify close
word classes

The phrases: completeness

7 Forms/kinds of Independent Students learn 1x2x60 Portofolio 40%
phrases: NP, VP, about kinds of
AjP, AvP, PP, GP phrases
Functions of
phrases

12
 completeness
Structured Students 1x2x60 Portofolio 60%
identify kinds of
phrases in
sentences

Form and function completeness

8 labels in Independent Students learn 1x2x60 Portofolio 40%
grammatical about main and
analysis subordinate
phrases
Subordinations at
the level of
phrases

completeness
Structured Students analyze 1x2x60 Portofolio 60%
main and
subordinate
phrases

completeness
9 MID TET

13
 The clauses completeness
10 Kinds of clauses Independent Students learn 1x2x60 Portofolio 40%
Main clauses and about clauses
subordinate
clauses
Elements of
clauses
completeness
Structured Students 1x2x60 Portofolio 60%
describe main
and subordinate
clauses

Finite and non- completeness

11 finite Independent Students learn 1x2x60 Portofolio 40%
constructions about finite and
non-finite
Finite verb construction
phrases and non-
finite verb phrases
Clause structures
of declaratives,
imperatives,,
active-passive

14
 completeness
Structured Students 1x2x60 Portofolio 60%
identify finite
and non-finite
construction
The major clause completeness
12 patterns of English Independent Students learn 1x2x60 Portofolio 40%
about
Constructions by coordination and
use of subordination
coordination and
subordination

completeness
Structured Students 1x2x60 Portofolio 60%
identify main
and subordinate
clauses
13 Subordination at completeness
the level of Independent Students learn 1x2x60 Portofolio 40%
clauses about clause
subordinations
Direct and indirect
subordination

15
 Students completeness
Structured identify clause 1x2x60 Portofolio 60%
subordination
Finite and non- completeness
14 finite clauses Independent Students learn 1x2x60 Portofolio 40%
about finite and
Analysis on non-finite
various clauses clauses
completeness
Structured Students 1x2x60 Portofolio 60%
identify finite
and non-finite
clauses
Skeleton analysis: completeness
15 phrases and Independent Students learn 1x2x60 Portofolio 40%
clauses about skeleton
analysis
Structured Students completeness
identify skeleton 1x2x60 Portofolio 60%
analysis of
phrase and
clauses

16 FINAL TEST

16
 UNIT I
LESSON PLAN & DESCRIPTION

1.1 Week 1
A. Short Description
This course focuses on sentence constructions with
elements by principles, procedure and process of
constructing and analyzing words, phrases, clauses and
sentences.

B. Learning Outcome
Students understand sentence construction with
elements and are able to use sentences in effective
communications both spoken and written.

C. Learning Materials
- Definition of Grammar
- Introduction to Syntax
- Parts of speech

D. Summary
 Grammar is a set of mechanism how words are put
together
 Language is produced by three relationship: idea,
grammar and sound/sentence
 People vary languages because of two factors:
users (regional origin, social class membership,
age, and sex) and use (tenor, mode and field)
 The language is not only used to convey menaning,
but it also brings powers.

17
A Handbook for Undergraduate Student of English

E. Evaluation
Three of the followings relate to some ideas of
grammar:
Find one context in our culture how the people vary the
language due to tenor, mode and domain!

1.2 Week 2
A. Short Description
This course focuses on sentence constructions with
elements by principles, procedure and process of
constructing and analyzing words, phrases, clauses and
sentences.

B. Learning Outcome
Students understand sentence construction with
elements and are able to use sentences in effective
communications both spoken and written.

C. Learning Materials
- units of grammar
- sentence
- clause
- phrase
- word

D. Summary
 Subject (S) usually occurs in front of the verb
 Predicator (P) follows the subject
 Object (O) follows the predicator
 Adverbial (A) can appear in any position
 Complement (C) comes after certain verbs

18
 BASIC SYNTAX

E. Evaluation
Analyze the following sentences based on their
elements (S, P, O, A and C)!
a. Caroline is coming with a hamper of food
b. Barbara handed the results to Alan on Tuesday
c. The pupils in this maths class gave cakes to
Margaret every Friday
d. This very heavy parcel was delivered yesterday
e. The terrier attacked the burglar

1.3 Week 3
A. Short Description
This course focuses on sentence constructions with
elements by principles, procedure and process of
constructing and analyzing words, phrases, clauses and
sentences.

B. Learning Outcome
Students understand sentence construction with
elements and are able to use sentences in effective
communications both spoken and written.

C. Learning Materials
- The concept of grammatical analysis
- Grammatical notations: bracketing system and tree
diagram system

D. Summary
 To analyze a sentence using bracketing and tree
diagram system, we must start by identifying the
highest unit of language to the lowest one (from
sentence to word)

19
A Handbook for Undergraduate Student of English

 Users of grammar tend to choose different way of

system based on their interest in how the system
gives visual picture of sentence element.

E. Evaluation
Analyze the following sentences using bracketing
system!
a. In his usual carefree fashion John run into an
enormous hill
b. You are mocking me with that rude word
c. The first son of Margaret has been awarded with a
very wonderful medal
d. Next, we went to Kuta beach.

1.4 Week 4
A. Short Description
This course focuses on sentence constructions with
elements by principles, procedure and process of
constructing and analyzing words, phrases, clauses and
sentences.

B. Learning Outcome
Students understand sentence construction with
elements and are able to use sentences in effective
communications both spoken and written.

C. Learning Materials
Forms and functions of grammatical units in
grammatical analysis

20
 BASIC SYNTAX

D. Summary
Phrases Modifiers (M) Head (H)
Noun Phrase (NP) my house
that expensive car
a well-known writer
Adjective Phrase extremely wonderful
(AjP) more interesting
Adverb Phrase very often
(AvP) yesterday

Phrases Auxiliary (Aux) Main Verb

(Mv)
Verb Phrase (VP) is sleeping
has been living
will be working

Phrases p Modifier Head (H)

(M)
Prepositional in the library
Phrase (PP) of new house
will be working

E. Evaluation
Analyze the following sentences based on their forms
and functions!
a. In his usual carefree fashion John run into an
enormous hill
b. You are mocking me with that rude word
c. The first son of Margaret has been awarded with a
very wonderful medal
d. Next, we went to Kuta beach.

21
A Handbook for Undergraduate Student of English

1.5 Week 5
A. Short Description
This course focuses on sentence constructions with
elements by principles, procedure and process of
constructing and analyzing words, phrases, clauses and
sentences.

B. Learning Outcome
Students understand sentence construction with
elements and are able to use sentences in effective
communications both spoken and written.

C. Learning Materials
- The classification of words: open word classes and
closed word classes
- Open word classes: N, V, Aj, Av

D. Summary
Open word classes are Noun (N), Verb (V), Adjective
(Aj), and Adverb (Av)

E. Evaluation
a. The boat sank slowly.
b. The guests are lying on the grass.
c. Betty wore a mini-skirt.
d. The refreshments are outside.
e. Sir Arthur looked attractive.

1.6 Week 6
A. Short Description
This course focuses on sentence constructions with
elements by principles, procedure and process of

22
 BASIC SYNTAX

constructing and analyzing words, phrases, clauses and

sentences.

B. Learning Outcome
Students understand sentence construction with
elements and are able to use sentences in effective
communications both spoken and written.

C. Learning Materials
Closed word classes: determiners, pronouns,
enumerators, prepositions, conjunctions, operator-
verbs, interjections, and particles

D. Summary
Closed Class Examples
Determiner (d) the, a, this, that, some, any, all, many
Pronoun (pn) I, me, you, he, she, i, her, them, one, some,
someone
Preposition (p) of, in, on, at, before, under, past, from, to,
by, for
Conjunction (cj) and, or, but, if, when, because, that, so
Operator-verb (v) can, may, will, shall, have, be, do
Interjection (ij) Oh, ah, ooh, gee, ugh, hell, hey
Enumerator (e) One, two, three, first, second

E. Evaluation
The students analyze closed word classes in sentences
as the followings.
a. Ooh, a student placed a heap of explosives across
the tracks.
b. The handsome John is in the garden.
c. But, you considered him a fool.
d. That old woman became a queen.
e. She was breathing heavily.

23
A Handbook for Undergraduate Student of English

1.7 Week 7
A. Short Description
This course focuses on sentence constructions with
elements by principles, procedure and process of
constructing and analyzing words, phrases, clauses and
sentences.

B. Learning Outcome
Students understand sentence construction with
elements and are able to use sentences in effective
communications both spoken and written.

C. Learning Materials
- The phrases: Forms/kinds of phrases: NP, VP, AjP,
AvP, PP, GP
- Functions of phrases

D. Summary
Phrase Structure
Noun Phrase (NP) Modifier (M) Head (H)
beautiful woman
very beautiful woman
Adjective Phrase Modifier (M) Head (H)
(AjP) very astonishing
extremely very astonishing
Adverb Phrase (AvP) Modifier (M) Head (H)
Verb Phrase (VP) Auxiliary (Aux) Main Verb (Mv)
Prepositional Phrase Preposition (p) Noun
(PP)
Genitive Phrase

E. Evaluation
The students identify different phrases in sentences
(NP, VP, AjP, AvP, PP and GP)
a. That idea sounds wonderful.

24
 BASIC SYNTAX

b. The furniture is in bad condition.

c. The discussions are at a standstill.
d. My mother gave that beggar some old clothes.
e. Obama made a very important speech in White
House.

1.8 Week 8
A. Short Description
This course focuses on sentence constructions with
elements by principles, procedure and process of
constructing and analyzing words, phrases, clauses and
sentences.

B. Learning Outcome
Students understand sentence construction with
elements and are able to use sentences in effective
communications both spoken and written.

C. Learning Materials
- Form and function labels in grammatical analysis
- Subordinations at the level of phrases

D. Summary
A subordinate phrase is a phrase which is functioning
as an element or a part of a larger phrase.

E. Evaluation
The studens identify main and subordinate phrases of
the followings:
a. the girl in red hat
b. the prince of great king
c. a doll in the box

25
A Handbook for Undergraduate Student of English

d. the students in the class

e. the hero of the dark night

1.9 Week 9
Mid-Test

1.10 Week 10
A. Short Description
This course focuses on sentence constructions with
elements by principles, procedure and process of
constructing and analyzing words, phrases, clauses and
sentences.

B. Learning Outcome
Students understand sentence construction with
elements and are able to use sentences in effective
communications both spoken and written.

C. Learning Materials
- The clauses
- Kinds of clauses
- Main clauses and subordinate clauses
- Elements of clauses
D. Summary
Clause elements:
 Subject (S)
 Predicator (P)
 Object (O)
 Complement (C)
 Adverbial (A)
E. Evaluation
Make sentences based on the following clause

26
 BASIC SYNTAX

structure!
a. S, P
b. S, P, O
c. S, P, C
d. S, P, O, C
e. S, P, A, A

1.11 Week 11
A. Short Description
This course focuses on sentence constructions with
elements by principles, procedure and process of
constructing and analyzing words, phrases, clauses and
sentences.

B. Learning Outcome
Students understand sentence construction with
elements and are able to use sentences in effective
communications both spoken and written.

C. Learning Materials
- Finite and non-finite constructions
- Finite verb phrases and non-finite verb phrases
- Clause structures of declaratives, imperatives,
active-passive

D. Summary
Finite is the most important element in a clause because
it tells 1). tenses, and 2). modality. The finite is found
in verb phrase in the main clause (Most televisions
show unacceptable programs) or operator verb (The
government have made a new regulation) and in modal
verbs (The headmaster will be giving a speech in ten

27
A Handbook for Undergraduate Student of English

minutes). The finite only occurs in verb phrases of a

main clause.

E. Evaluation
The students identify finite and non-finite verbs in
sentences.

1.12 Week 12
A. Short Description
This course focuses on sentence constructions with
elements by principles, procedure and process of
constructing and analyzing words, phrases, clauses and
sentences.

B. Learning Outcome
Students understand sentence construction with
elements and are able to use sentences in effective
communications both spoken and written.

C. Learning Materials
- The major clause patterns of English
- Constructions by use of coordination and
subordination

D. Summary
 To combine two independent clauses, coordinate
cinjuntions are needed
 Subordinate conjunctions are used to combine an
independent and dependent clause

E. Evaluation
Make ten sentences (five sentences consist of clauses

28
 BASIC SYNTAX

coordinated with coordinate conjunction, and five

sentences with two clauses subordinated with
subordinate conjunctons)

1.13 Week 13
A. Short Description
This course focuses on sentence constructions with
elements by principles, procedure and process of
constructing and analyzing words, phrases, clauses and
sentences.

B. Learning Outcome
Students understand sentence construction with
elements and are able to use sentences in effective
communications both spoken and written.

C. Learning Materials
- Subordination at the level of clauses
- Direct and indirect subordination

D. Summary
 To combine two independent clauses, coordinate
cinjuntions are needed
 Subordinate conjunctions are used to combine an
independent and dependent clause

E. Evaluation
The students do analysis based on the instruction given
by the lecturer

29
A Handbook for Undergraduate Student of English

1.14 Week 14
A. Short Description
This course focuses on sentence constructions with
elements by principles, procedure and process of
constructing and analyzing words, phrases, clauses and
sentences.

B. Learning Outcome
Students understand sentence construction with
elements and are able to use sentences in effective
communications both spoken and written.

C. Learning Materials
- Finite and non-finite clauses
- Analysis on various clauses
D. Summary
1 Finite clauses with primary verbs Non-finite clauses with
secondary verbs
Finite clauses are primary verbs as Non-finite clauses are
their main verbs. Tense, person and secondary verbs as their
number are found in a primary verb main verbs that is not
marked by tense (usually -ed in past) marked for tense, aspect,
and number (usually -s for 3rd mood, number and person. It
person). Acording to the 2002 cannot serve as the
revision of the Cambridge Grammar independent clause unless
of the English combined with an auxiliary
Language, finite and non-finite verbs verb (e.g., can, may, will). A
were renamed primary and secondary clause with secondary verb
verbs. is called a non-
finite clause. This is almost
always subordinate.
2 Marked For Tense Are Not Marked For Tense
Ceyda sing / sang a song. (regular [To sleep in class]
tense verb) is embarrassing.
Ceyda is beautiful. Ceyda and
Emma were silly. (irregular) [Singing in class] is
Ceyda writes a word. Emma wrote a challenging.
sentence. (irregular)

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 BASIC SYNTAX

[Prepared students] are more

likely to pass the tests.
3 Have Subject Rarely Have Subject
Ceyda wishes that she understands the Ceyda wishes to
lyrics. [understand the lyrics].
It is surprising that she sings all the It is surprising for [her to
difficult songs. [sing all the difficult songs].
4 Marked For Person Not Marked For Person
Ceyda sings her own song. (3rd Ceyda wants to [sing her
person) song].
Ceyda stands up to [sing her
song]. (purpose)
Ceyda helps us [memorize
the lyrics]. ("to" not
included)
It is hard for
Ceyda to [practice
seriously.]
5 Form Negative With Do + Not Form Negative With Not
Emma does not want to study in the Emma wants not to [study in
bedroom all day. the bedroom all day].
Emma is not there now. Emma prefers not [studying
in the bedroom all day]
Emma seems not to [be in
the library now].

[Not wanting to study all

day] is understandable.

E. Evaluation
The students do analysis based on the instruction given
by the lecturer.

1.15 Week 15
A. Short Description
This course focuses on sentence constructions with
elements by principles, procedure and process of
constructing and analyzing words, phrases, clauses and
sentences.

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B. Learning Outcome
Students understand sentence construction with
elements and are able to use sentences in effective
communications both spoken and written.

C. Learning Materials
- Skeleton analysis: phrases and clauses
- Omission of conjunctions

D. Summary
Cl Ph

Ph Ph
(main phrase) (subordinate phrase)

E. Evaluation
The students do analysis based on the instruction given
by the lecturer.

1.16 Week 16
Final Test

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 UNIT 2
GRAMMAR

2.1 Definition of Grammar

Grammar is broadly defined by many linguists, but

we can not find any single definition as every linguist has
different way in how to describe grammar. Furthermore, we
can group grammar into three main categories - traditional
grammar, modern grammar and functional grammar. Based
on Gerot and Wignell (1994), traditional grammar focuses on
how language learners are able to construct grammatical
sentence consctruction. Then, modern grammar relates to
how the language learners can identify elements of a
sentence, and functional grammar is about how the language
learners can use grammar for communicative purposes.
Every language has its own grammar that is used to
communicate between interactants even though it is
considered abstract. We, as language users, can not use our
five senses to capture grammar, but we use it directly from
which we can allow or not allow certain grammar in
particular utterance (speaking) and sentence (writing). A
student who considers English as a second or foreign
language can construct different sentences or produce
utterances by using different contexts of times (tenses). It is
due to the students‟ knowledge of mechanism. For instance,
the student must put word classes in different positions in a
particular sentence to produce a very meaningful thought.

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Look at the following examples:

(1) A very talented song writer is composing his last album.
(2) Some incredible paintings have been displayed at the
Arts department for a week.
(3) An novel old is on the bookshelf*
(4) A little dino playing is the grasses on*

We can see from the above examples that (1&2) are

written grammatically based on the word class positions.
Meanwhile, the other ones (3&4) are written
ungrammatically since they do not convey meaningful
thoughts. For example in example 3, a noun phrase „an novel
old‟ should be written as „an old novel‟ and a preposition „on‟
should precede a noun phrase „the bookshelf‟. Then, example
4 is not correctly constructed as from the verb phrase that
consists of a main verb and an auxiliary, the auxiliary „is’
should precede the main verb „playing‟.
Based on the examples and also explanation above,
it can be assumed that many students of English can easily
construct the correct sentences and re-correct the
ungrammatical ones based on their abstract knowledge of
grammar eventhough we do agree that not English language
users can do that due to lack of grammar knowledge.

2.2 Meaningful Language

To be meaningfully accepted as a message, idea or

thought must be converted into words and sound. When a
speaker or writer needs to convey a message to his
interlocutors and readers, there must be an idea in mind, and
to do so the speaker or writer must convert it through sounds
(speaking) or words (writing). Here, the speaker or writer

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 BASIC SYNTAX

needs to be knowledgeable about grammar from which the

message is accepted, and then the communication works
well. The following is how the relationship between idea,
grammar and sound or words are expressed:

Spoken/Written
Ideas/Thoughts Grammar Language

Figure 1. The relationship between three components (Leech,

Deuchar & Hoogenraad, 1982)

2.3 Descriptive Approach of Language

People use language to communicate with others. In

one hand, they use the same language with its variations in
the same or different societies, or on the other hand they
completely use the different language. For example,
Indonesian people who use Bahasa Indonesia will not
encounter any problems in doing communication with the
others as all Indonesian people have the same language as the
medium of communication. Furthermore, what about
Javanese language? As we know that it has many variations
since Javanese language is used mostly by people living in
Java, and every region has different dialect or variation. This
variation occurs not only in the local context (Indonesia) but
also in other countries (worldwide) due to some factors such
as difference of people (British and American), age (adult and
young), sex (female and male), regions (southern and
northern), social class (working class and middle class), etc.
The different language (variation) can be categorized

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based on two main characteristics - users and use. Based on

the user characteristics, the language will vary because of
some factors - regional origin, social-class membership, age
and sex stated by Leech, Deucher, and Hoogenraad (1982: 6-
8). The descriptions of such factors in details are as follow by
having facts from local context (Indonesia).

2.4 Language Variations

1. Regional Origin
As Javanese people, we do not have any problem in
identifying where a particular person comes from because we
can do that only by analyzing what utterances produced. In
doing so, we must be very familiar with the variety of a
particular region. For example, we can identify a person
coming from Tegal, Kebumen, Semarang, Pati, etc. easily as
that person uses peculiar variation of language (dialect) even
in our first meeting we meet with that person. This
identification can be based on pronunciation, vocabulary and
grammar. The first two are easy to find in every day
communication, but the last is little bit difficult as many
Javanese people do not learn Javanese grammar.

2. Social-class membership
Living in a society consisting of diverse social class
background will probably affect the different language used
by its members. For example, the people living in a particular
community must use different language as they regularly
communicate with others who have the same social class
background. Then, it will be problematic for the people who
have different social class status to communicate using the
different language variation (dialect). For example, a

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 BASIC SYNTAX

professor at campus is on the top position of social class

membership. Meanwhile, when he comes home he will have
the same position with his neighbours. Here, the professor
needs to vary his languages related to different contex of
situation. Also, the students will vary the language when they
have different people to comunicate such as students-students
and students-lecturers.

3. Age
Every social community must have its own rules
which shape how the members in it should obey including
how they should communicate using appropriate language.
We can take an example from our own culture (Javanese).
The Javanese people have a language with its „speech level‟
in it. The speech level consists of the most polite level
(kromo), more polite level (madya) and the least polite level
(ngoko). Each is used differently by the members
prescriptively. Kromo is used only by the younger ones to the
adults in a prticular context and even those who have the
lowest status to the highest ones. For example, the children
will use kromo when they communicate with the parents. The
people in the middle class use „madya‟ as it symbolizes the
close relationship between the interactants. Sometimes the
youngers use „madya‟ when communicating with strangers to
show respects. The last, ngoko is only used by the youngs
showing very close relationships (friendships).

4. Sex
Based on a research conducted by Holmes (1994), it
was found that women dominate the language in very formal
situations such as in learning activities, workshops, seminars,
conference, etc., whereas the males only use more language

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in informal situations. Here, we can conclude that most

women use more standard language rather than the males
who tend to use more informal language. This analysis is
based on the language domination in the different context of
situation based on the different sex wich is also related to
politeness.

2.5 Language Use

The second discussion related to how the people use

different language based on the „use’ is defined as Register.
The register consists of three categories of language from
which it will affect how the people use different language in
communication. Those three categories are tenor, mode and
domain/ field.

1. Tenor
The different language used by the people is affected
by the degree of formality. It is due to the different personal
relationship between the interactants (speaker-listener or
writer-reader). The speaker will vary the language by looking
at the circumstances around him. For example, a student
responding to a question given by a very close friend and a
lecturer must use different language expression. The student
will respond with „dunno‟ to his close friend and „I am sorry
Sir, I do not know‟ to his lecturer. Why does such student vary
the language? It is based on the relationship between the
speaker and the interlocutor and also on the circumstance.

2. Mode
When the people use different ways in
communication either by using spoken or written language,

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 BASIC SYNTAX

this will produce effects of the language produced as the

effects are used to convey the meanings achieved by the
interlocutors or readers. For instance, it can be seen in how
the people use gestures and facial expressions in speaking.
Moreover, they will also produce many prosodic features
such as „well’, ‘you know’,’see’, ‘get my point’, ‘pardon’, etc.
which are not found in written language. Then, the speakers
also vary the speech, intonation, tone, etc. in order the
messages conveyed are achieved by the listeners. On the
other hand, we will not find these in written language as it
depends mostly on the textual characteristics. The writer
needs to concern about the cohesion and coherence of the
language.

3. Domain/ field
In spite of the tenor which concerns the relationship
between the interactants and the mode as how the effects
produced when the language is transmitted, the people will
also vary the language based on the activities they are dealing
with. The people use particular vocabularies based on the
different activities. It is also relied on in what contexts the
activities are going on (speaking or writing). For example, the
people will use very technical vocabularies if they are
producing some texts such as explanation and procedure.
Moreover, a very formal document will be very different of
its language from advertisement.
Hence, using a language to communicate with others
is very descriptive. It means that the prescriptive language
will not be found in any context of communication as it is
affected by those three main factors. Beside, it will be more
difficult if the people vary not only the language but also the
dialect.

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A Handbook for Undergraduate Student of English

EXERCISE

1. What can you say about grammar?

2. Explain the followings:
a. Prescriptive grammar
b. Descriptive Grammar
3. What does it propably happen when speakers of a
language do not know the rules of grammar?
4. Give your brief explanation of the following figure!

Semantics Grammar Phonology

5. Give your explanation based on the following figure!

Language

Social class
Regional origin age and sex
membership

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 BASIC SYNTAX

SUMMARY

 Grammar is a set of mechanism how words are put

together
 Language is produced by three relationship: idea, grammar
and sound/sentence
 People vary languages because of two factors: users
(regional origin, social class membership, age, and sex)
and use (tenor, mode and field)
 The language is not only used to convey menaning, but it
also brings powers.

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EVALUATION

Find some examples about differences between American and

British English related to pronounciation, vocabulary, and
grammar!

Language American English British English

Variation
Pronounciation ......................................... .........................................
......................................... .........................................
......................................... .........................................
......................................... .........................................
Vocabulary ......................................... .........................................
......................................... .........................................
......................................... .........................................
......................................... .........................................
Grammar ......................................... .........................................
......................................... .........................................
......................................... .........................................
......................................... .........................................

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 UNIT 3
SENTENCES AND THEIR ELEMENTS

3.1 Sentences

A sentence is the largest unit of language generally

constructed by its lower levels (words, phrases and clauses).
To identify a sentence, it must be characterized by a capital
letter in the first part of the word and a full stop at the end of
the word. The sentence does not only consist of a single
clause (simple sentence) consisting of its smaller units, but
also more clauses (compound, complex, and compound-
complex). It means that in those clauses, each clause is
constructed by smaller levels. The followings are some
examples of sentences:

(5) I had breakfast in the most expensive restaurant

yesterday.
(6) The porter placed the briefcase in the guest‟s room, but
the man was not there.
(7) Because it is a long holiday, most students do not go to
campus.

From the examples above, it can be inferred that

sentence (5) is in the form of simple sentence that consists
only a single clause. Then, sentence (6) is an example of a
compound sentence consisting of two independent clauses
coordinated by conjunction „but‟. The last (7) is a complex
sentence with a dependent clause and an independent clause
subordinated by subordinate conjunction „because‟.

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A Handbook for Undergraduate Student of English

The clause is the principal unit from which a

sentence is composed. Here, the sentence may have one or
more clauses. Based on most grammar books, a clause must
have at least subject (S) and predicator (P). It can be seen
from the examples (5-7) that the first example (5) only has a
single clause, whereas the later two (6-7) are composed of
two clauses. Then, the phrase is the next lower level after
clauses (between clause and word). It is divided into some
different classes - Noun Phrase (NP), Verb Phrase (VP),
Adjective Phrase (AjP), Adverb Phrase (AvP), Prepositional
Phrase (PP) and Genitive Phrase (GP). We can see the phrase
classes by the following examples:

(8) The vacation was held at Sanur in Bali.

(9) We have been expecting scholarship since August.
(10) The girl in red hat was very beautiful.
(11) The artist left the concert yesterday afternoon.
(12) John‟s father decided to buy a new house near the
river.

The noun phrases are the vacation, we, scholarship,

the girl, the artist, the concert, and a new house, while we can
find prepositional phrases at Sanur, in Bali, since Augus, in
red hat, and near the river. Then, verb phrases are was held,
have been expecting, was, left, and decided. Examples of
adjective phrase is very beautiful. The last, an example of
genitive phrase is John’s father and yesterday afternoon
belongs to adverb phrase.
Finally, the word is classified as the lowest level of
language, and it always exists in its higher level. It is
subdivided into its word classes - noun, verb, adjective and
adverb. They are called as open word classes, and some

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 BASIC SYNTAX

words belong to close word classes that will be discussed in

detail later. Some examples of open word classes are
elaborated of the following sentences:

(13) That house is amazing.

(14) The police arrested the bank robber yesterday.
(15) This novel saddens me.

The nouns are house, police, robber, novel and me.

The verbs are is, arrested and saddens. Then, amazing is
adjective, and yesterday is as the adverb.

Table 1. Hierarchy and rank

Unit Symbol
Sentence Se
Clause Cl
Phrase Ph
Word Wo

Higher A sentence (one or more clauses)

A clause (one or more phrases)
A phrase (one or more words)
Lower A word

Furthermore, we will also see that a sentence may

have a single clause, phrase and word such as „Stop!‟,
„Shoot!‟, etc.

3.2 Grammatical Notation & Class Classification

As mentioned in the previous discussion that a

sentence is the highest level of language which is composed

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by its lower levels (clause/s, phrases and words). To be

clearly able to identify parts of a sentence, we need to have
ways of representing it. Some books of grammar which talk
about syntax have different ways, and all are correct.
Furthermore, we need to have the easiest ones to analyze
sentences. Here, we use ways of analyzing sentences by
bracketing and tree diagram.

1. Bracketing
In doing sentence analysis using bracketing, we need
to be aware of its convention as each level has different
symbol. First, we need to mark the sentence with an initial
capital letter and a final full stop. Next, the square bracket
[ ] is used to mark clauses, and round bracket ( ) for
phrases. The last, word does not have a very specific
convention symbol as it is only separated by spaces. See the
following examples how some sentences are composed by
lower levels with their bracketing symbols. Look at the
following examples:

(16) [(The factory) (produce-s) (a new car)].

(17) [(The kids) (have arrived) (at school) (safely)].
(18) [(That stupid writer) (has insulted) (his readers)].

It can be seen that sentence (16) consists of a single

clause and three phrases. Then, sentence (17) is constructed
by a single clause with four phrases, and the last (18) has one
clause with three phrases.
2. Tree diagram
Another way of analyzing parts of a sentence is by
the use of tree diagram. Actually, it has the same objective as
what the bracketing does, but those who are interested in

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 BASIC SYNTAX

sentence analysis due to its clear visual picture how a

sentence is composed of its lower levels can be of interest for
them. The followings are the sentence analyses using tree
diagram based on the examples of sentences (16-18):

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3.3 Form and Function

Besides analyzing parts of a sentence (constituent)

which consists of clause, phrase and words we need also
know to what classes they belong to. Here, two classifications
are used to identify the classes - form and function.

1. Form
Words as the smallest level of language divided into
some form classes; they are as Nouns (N), Verb (V),
Adjective (Aj), and Adverb (Av). Then, phrases as the middle
level between words and clauses are in the forms of Noun
Phrase (NP), Verb Phrase (VP), Adjective Phrase (AjP),
Adverb Phrase (AvP), Prepositional Phrase (PP) and Genitive
Phrase (GP). In doing analysis, the symbols of forms are
positioned under the analyzed constituents.

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 BASIC SYNTAX

Look at the following examples:

(19) [ NP ( N Ceyda) VP (is V playing) PP (in the N garden) ].

(20) [ NP ( N I) VP (have V written) NP (three N books) ].
(21) [ NP ( N Artists) VP (joined) NP (the international N

concert)].

Those three examples can also be described by using tree

diagram as the following.

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2. Function
Form classification relates to how the unit is
constructed by its smaller levels. For instance, the noun
phrase „the international concert‟ is composed by three
words. Meanwhile, function classification is based on how
they are used to form larger units (function classes). In
analyzing function class, we need to know about the clause
element consisting of Subject (S), Predicator (P), Object (O),
Adverbial (A) and Complement (C). We position the clause
element symbols in the upper side in front of the clause
elements. The followings are the description of clause
elements:

 Subject (S) usually occurs in front of the verb

 Predicator (P) follows the subject
 Object follows the predicator
 Adverbial (A) can appear in any position
 Complement (C) comes after certain verbs

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 BASIC SYNTAX

Look at the following examples:

(22) [ S (Tere Liye) P (wrote) O (his novels) A (a long time
ago)].
(23) [ S (The students) P (went) A (to the cinema) A (in
Transmart)].
(24) [ S (Black) P (drove) O (the old BMW) A (carelessly)].
Moreover, the phrases composed of smaller units
(words) also have function, and we need to identify them.
Two main functions of words are as Head (H) and Modifier
(M). The Head and Modifiers are only applied for NP, AjP
and AvP. Each kind of phrase has different word function.
Look at the following table:

Table 2. Element of Noun Phrase, Adjective Phrase and

Adverbial Phrase
Phrases Modifiers (M) Head (H)
Noun Phrase (NP) my house
that expensive car
a well-known writer
Adjective Phrase extremely wonderful
(AjP) more interesting
Adverb Phrase (AvP) very often
yesterday

Meanwhile, for two other phrases (VP and PP), they

have different word classes. The verb phrase consists of
Auxiliary (Aux) and Main Verb (Mv), whereas Prepositional
Phrase has preposition which precedes the noun phrases. PP
is actually a NP precede by preposition. The description is as
follows.

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Table 3. Element of Verb Phrase

Phrases Auxiliary (Aux) Main Verb
(Mv)
Verb Phrase (VP) is sleeping
has been living
will be working

Table 4. Element of Prepositional Phrase

Phrases p Modifier Head (H)
(M)
Prepositional in the library
Phrase (PP) of new house
will be working

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 BASIC SYNTAX

EXERCISE

Identify the following clauses by writing in the brackets

Ind. (independent clause) or Dep. (dependent clause)!
1. [ ] He was walking very slowly.
2. [ ] Although I was not sure to come or not to the
seminar.
3. [ ] The movers lifted the packing caret carefully.
4. [ ] We bought tickets and attended the game.
5. [ ] That he would be elected was obvious.
6. [ ] When hospital nurses change from a day shidt to
a night shift, for example.

Identify whether the sentences belong to compound,

complex or compound-complex.
Jason decided to stay up late because he had a lot of
1.
homework to do.
2. If you hurry, we might get to school on time.
Although Monica had a cold, she went to school because she
3.
had a test.
While Ted was washing the car, he slipped on the soap and he
4.
fell.
5. Dad takes the train to work even though he has a car.
After Mom arrived, she put the disk in the DVD
6.
player and we watched a great movie.
Even though his heart pounded with dread, Ben bolted up the
7.
stairs, and he checked out the strange noise.
8. Molly baked brownies since she had nothing else to do.
Karen made a list of what was needed, and she double-
9.
checked it.
10. Frank had a good sense of humor, so he laughed a lot.

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SUMMARY

Hierarchy and rank

Unit Symbol
Sentence Se
Clause Cl
Phrase Ph
Word Wo

Phrases Modifiers (M) Head (H)

Noun Phrase (NP) my house
that expensive car
a well-known writer
Adjective Phrase extremely wonderful
(AjP) more interesting
Adverb Phrase (AvP) very often
yesterday
Phrases Auxiliary (Aux) Main Verb
(Mv)
Verb Phrase (VP) is sleeping
has been living
will be working

Phrases p Modifier Head (H)

(M)
Prepositional in the library
Phrase (PP) of new house
will be working

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 BASIC SYNTAX

EVALUATION

Analyse the following sentences based on the hierarchy of

unit (sentence, clauses and phrases) and count how many
of each unit!
1. Caroline is coming with a hamper of food.
2. Barbara handed the results to Alan on Tuesday.
3. The pupils in this maths class gave cakes to Margaret
every Friday.
4. This very heavy parcel was delivered yesterday.
5. The terrier attacked the burglar.
6. In his usual carefree fashion John run into an enormous
hill.
7. You are mocking me with that rude word.
8. The first son of Margaret has been awarded with a very
wonderful medal.
9. Next, we went to Kuta beach.
10. I went to campus yesterday.

Analyze the following sentences by using bracketing and

tree diagram systems
1. His younger brother broke the vase on purpose.
2. Worries turned his hair white.
3. I find them absolutely reliable.
4. This seems a very nice entertainment.
5. We discussed our victory in Italy.

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56
 UNIT 4
WORDS

4.1 Word Classification

Two identifications of words can be seen from form

and function classification. The word based on form
classification consists of two main distinctions - open and
closed classes. Here, open classes means that the word can be
added with additional prefix or suffix in the modified word.
Such words that belong to open classes are noun (N), verb
(V), adjective (Aj) and adverb (Av). Later, in doing sentence
analysis the open classes are written with capital letter
symbols. Then, closed classes is defined as the words that
have their fixed membership, and language learners are not
supposed to add with prefix or suffix. Those closed classes
are determiner (d), pronoun (pn), preposition (p), conjunction
(cj), operator verb (v), interjection (ij) and enumerator (e).
Here, they are written with initial small letters in the analysis
activities. The classification and membership of these
different classification can be seen by the following tables.

Table 5. Open Word Class

Open Class Examples
Noun (N) table, book, kindness, money, etc.
Verb (V: full verbs write, seem, look, listen, etc.
nor auxiliaries)
Adjective (Aj) handsome, beautiful, kind, friendly,
etc.
Adverb (Av) yesterday, carefully, firmly,etc

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Table 6. Closed Word Class

Closed Class Examples
Determiner (d) the, a, this, that, some, any, all, many
Pronoun (pn) I, me, you, he, she, i, her, them, one,
some, someone
Preposition (p) of, in, on, at, before, under, past, from,
to, by, for
Conjunction (cj) and, or, but, if, when, because, that,
so
Operator-verb (v) can, may, will, shall, have, be, do
Interjection (ij) Oh, ah, ooh, gee, ugh, hell, hey
Enumerator (e) One, two, three, first, second

To enable language learners classify what particular

words belong to, and to ease them in dealing with sentence
analysis all descriptions of words are elaborated.

4.2 The Open Classes

As mentioned earlier that the open word classes are

noun (N), verb (V), adjective (Aj), and adverb (Av). To
identify the open classes, we use three ways by analyzing
their form, function and meaning. The language learners will
not find any difficulties in identifying the open classes by
using those criteria.

1. Form Criteria
The open classes are identified of its characteristics
such as suffixes (-ity, -fy, -ic, and -al). For example, they are
humanity, electricity, beautify, classify, electric, economical,
etc. Then, we can identify the open classes due to the
inflection - words to change the forms. Some instances are
book-s (books), look-ed (looked), small-er (smaller), etc. In

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 BASIC SYNTAX

addition, inflection can also be found in most irregular words

such as in some irregular verbs (sing/sang, write/wrote, etc.).

2. Function Criteria
Function is meant how the words act in the sentence.
In many cases language learners will find many words which
have the same form, but they act differently in the sentences.
The language learners are easy to identify them by
identifying their functions. Look at the following sentences:

(25) The mean woman was accused of the murder last night.
(26) I did not mean to do such silly things.

From the examples above, two words in the same

form act differently as in the sentence (18) mean acts as
adjective whereas in the sentence (19) mean acts as verb. The
last criterion is how to identify the open classes by its
meaning. This is considered as the supportive criterion as to
identify meaning language learners need also to identify
function and form. For example, we can see from a sentence
“I love writing, but my love on grammar is bigger”. Here,
love has the same form and meaning, but they are different in
function.

a. Nouns (N)
Nouns can be identified by looking at their function,
meaning and form. The nouns function as the Head (H) in
noun phrases. For example, some noun phrases where the
nouns functioning as the head are NP ( H John), NP (the H car),
H
NP (a book PP (of syntax)), etc. The nouns have particular
suffixes such as -er, -ist, -ism, -tion, -ity, -hood, -ence, -ness,

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etc. and they can change from singular to plural by adding

suffix -s/es for regular words, and different form for irregular
ones. Moreover, the nouns from meaning criteria are divided
into concrete nouns - nouns referring to physical phenomena
such as people,objects, places, substances, etc. and abstract
nouns - nouns referring to events, states, activities, process,
times, occasion, etc.

b. Verbs (V)
Verbs here refer to the full verb as the main element
of verb phrase positioned as predicator such as VPP ( V sing), VPP
P
( V wrote), etc. or following the operator verb such as VP (v
P P
was V sleeping), VP ( v have v been V living), VP ( v will v be V

flying), etc. Then, to identify verb forms language learners

can see from the regular verbs and irregular verbs. From the
meaning criteria, verbs express actions, events, processes,
activities, states, etc.

c. Adjectives (Aj)
Firstly, adjectives function as the head (H) in
adjective phrases and as modifier in noun phrases. For
example, the head and modifier are differentiated by the
followings.

H
(27) She looked AjP (very beautiful) last night.
M
(28) NP (A famous singer) is standing on the stage.

Then, the adjectives are gradable forms from which

they can vary for comparative (adding -er) and superlative
(adding -est). Such example is tall-taller-tallest. From

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 BASIC SYNTAX

meaning, the adjectives express physical qualities of color,

shape, etc., psychological qualities of emotion (i.e. brave,
sad, etc.) and evaluative qualities (i.e. incredible, smart, dull,
etc.)

d. Adverbs
Adverbs are open word classes which can appear in
any position as they are movable. They function as the head
(H) in adverb phrases, and they can either precede or follow
the modifiers. Look at the following examples:

(29) That old lady is singing AvP ( H beautifully).

(30) The driver drove the car AvP ( M very H
carefully).
(31) The student responded AvP ( M very H
loudly M
(for
comfort)).

It is little bit easy how to identify adverbs as they are

often adjectives added with suffix -ly. Some examples are the
sentences (22-24). Then, the adverbs express many kinds of
meanings - manner, place, direction, time, duration,
frequency and degree

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EXERCISE

Analyze the following sentences: form and functions using

tree diagram and bracketing!
1. The boy saw the man with the telescope
2. The old tree swayed in the wind
3. The children put the toys in the box
4. The small boy saw George with a crazy dog recently
5. Sally was painting a house by the sea
6. James can play the piano well
7. Paul will enjoy the show
8. The neighbors moved to New York
9. The riders had won the game

Analyze the followings sentences based on their structures

by looking at their form and function (from open and
closed word classes) using bracketing!

1. The boy saw the man with the telescope

2. The old tree swayed in the wind
3. The children put the toys in the box
4. The small boy saw George with a crazy dog recently
5. Sally was painting a house by the sea
6. James can play the piano
7. Paul will enjoy the show
8. The neighbours have moved to New York

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SUMMARY

Open Word Class

Open Class Examples
Noun (N) table, book, kindness, money, etc.
Verb (V: full verbs nor write, seem, look, listen, etc.
auxiliaries)
Adjective (Aj) handsome, beautiful, kind, friendly, etc.
Adverb (Av) yesterday, carefully, firmly,etc

Closed Word Class

Closed Class Examples
Determiner (d) the, a, this, that, some, any, all, many
Pronoun (pn) I, me, you, he, she, i, her, them, one, some,
someone
Preposition (p) of, in, on, at, before, under, past, from, to, by,
for
Conjunction (cj) and, or, but, if, when, because, that, so
Operator-verb (v) can, may, will, shall, have, be, do
Interjection (ij) Oh, ah, ooh, gee, ugh, hell, hey
Enumerator (e) One, two, three, first, second

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EVALUATION

Analyze the followings sentences based on their structures

by looking at their form and function (from open and
closed word classes) using bracketing!

1. Caroline is coming with a hamper of food

2. Barbara handed the results to Alan on Tuesday
3. The pupils in this maths class gave cakes to Margaret
every Friday
4. This very heavy parcel was delivered yesterday
5. The terrier attacked the burglar
6. In his usual carefree fashion John run u an enormous hill
7. Shit, you are mocking me with that rude word
8. The first son of Margaret has been awarded with a very
wonderful medal
9. Next, we went to Kuta beach.
10. I went to campus.

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 UNIT 5
PHRASES

5.1 Phrase Classes

There are six different classes of phrases in English.
They are Noun Phrase (NP), Adjective Phrase (AjP), Adverb
Phrase (Avp), Prepositional Phrase (PP), Verb Phrase (VP)
and Genitive Phrase (GP). Each phrase has its different basic
structure. The description of the basic structure of each
phrase is described by the following table:

Table 7. Basic Structure of Phrases

Phrase Structure
Noun Phrase (NP) Modifier (M) Head (H)
beautiful woman
very beautiful woman
Adjective Phrase Modifier (M) Head (H)
(AjP) very astonishing
extremely very astonishing
Adverb Phrase Modifier (M) Head (H)
(AvP)
Verb Phrase (VP) Auxiliary (Aux) Main Verb (Mv)
Prepositional Preposition (p) Noun
Phrase (PP)
Genitive Phrase

The followings are examples of how a phrase with

basic structure:
(32) a noun phrase with one pre modifier
( the king)

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(33) a noun phrase with two pre modifiers

( the generous king)
(34) a noun with one post modifier
( something funny)

In a noun phrase, Head is as the main element while

Modifier is optional. Then, we will see some examples of
adjective phrase and adverb phrase.
(35) an adjective phrase with pre modifier
( very beautiful)
(36) an adjective phrase with two pre modifers
( extremely very beautiful)
(37) an adverb phrase with a pre modifier
( very often)

For a verb phrase, the basic structure is different

from the previous phrases (NP, AjP, and AvP). It consists of
auxiliary (Aux) and main verb (Mv). To describe auxiliary,
we can see from all tenses and modals as the followings.

Table 8. Basic structure of verb phrase

Tenses Auxiliary (Aux) Main Verb (Mv)
Simple Present write
Present Progressive is/are writing
Simple Past wrote
Past Progressive was/were writing
Simple Future will write
Past Future would write
Present Perfect have written
Tense
Past Perfect Tense had written
Future Perfect will have written
Tense

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5.2 Main and subordinate phrases

In English, a clause can be categorized as a main or
subordinate clause. It is also the same as phrase. There are
main phrase which is a direct part of clause, while
subordinate phrase is a part of main phrase. Main phrase a
direct constituent of a clause which is not a part of another
phrase [... (Ph) ...]. Meanwhile, subordinate phrase are those
which are part of other phrases (...(Ph)...).

Example:
(38) [(Mr. Brown) (has been living) (in his lovely house) (for
years)]
(39) [(The daughter (of the king)) (has attracted) (men) (in
the hall (of a wedding party))].

From sentence (38), it can be seen that the sentence

consists of four main phrases. Then, sentence (39) consists of
4 main phrases and 2 subordinate phrases. The description
can also be visualized by using the following tree diagram.

Cl Ph

Ph Ph
(main phrase) (subordinate phrase)

The ilustration examples of main and subordinate

phrasess are as follow.
(40) (his interest (on Khahlil Gibran (about romance)))
(41) (our opinion (of his interest (on Khahlil Gibran (about
romance))))

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5.3 Noun Phrase (NP)

Based on function, noun phrase (NP) acts a subject
(S), object (O), complement (C) and adverbial (A). It can be
seen from the following examples:

(42) [ S (The house) P (was built) A (by the villagers) A (in

1900)].
(43) [ S (Many students) P (are completing) O (their final
project) A (these days)].
(44) [ S (That) P (must be) C (the White House)].
(45) [ S (Many students) P (did) O (graduation) A (last month)].

Meanwhile, accrording to structure noun phrases are

constructed by many elements as follow.
1. The heads of a noun phrase (NP) are noun, pronoun,
adjectives, enumerator, and genitive phrase.

(46) (the Nbaby), (a Nnovel)

(47) (pit), (pthat), (pthose), (psomeone (in red hat)
(48) (the Ajrich), (all Ajsix)
(49) (GP(John‟s))

2. The premodifiers of a noun phrase (NP) can be

determiners, enumeroators, adjectives, nouns, genitive
phrase and adverb.
(50) (dthis book)
(51) (the efirst winner)
(52) (Ajred wine)
(53) (a Nsilver ring)
(54) (GP(John)‟s house)

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 BASIC SYNTAX

3. The postmodifiers of a noun phrase can be prepositional

phrase, relative clause, adverbs, and adjectives.
(55) (An old novel PP(of my interest))
(56) (a young lady RCl[I admire])
(57) (the city Avdowntown)
(58) (something scary PP(in the old house))

5.4 Verb Phrase (VP)

Verb phrase will always act as predicator in finite
clauses. Based on structure, verb phrase consists of either
main verb only (Mv) such as in simple present and past or
auxiliary (Aux) with main verb (Mv). To describe verb phrase
with a main verb only or auxiliary with main verb, it can be
seen from the following examples:

(59) [(My mother) VP(prepares) (breakfast) (in the

morning)].
(60) [(Adele) VP(bought) (a new grammar book) (yesterday)
(in Gramedia)].
(61) [(I) VP(have lived) (in Salatiga) (for ten years)].
(62) [(In 2022), (most students) VP(will have completed) (the
undergraduate study)].

5.5 Adjective Phrase (AjP)

Most adjective phrases consist of a simple structure:
head (H) and modifier (M). We rarely find adjective phrase
with more than one modifier or postmodifier. Based on
function, adjective phrase functions as complement (C).
(63) [The short story is AjP(interesting)].
(64) [The English syntax is not AjP(difficult)].

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Then, based on structure the head of adjective phrase

is an adjective. The adjective is sometime modified by
premodifiers in the forms of adverb such as extremely, rather,
too and very.
5.6 Adverb Phrase (AvP)
Adverb phrase functions as adverbials (A) and the
head of adverb phrase is adverb (Av).

(65) [The young lady is singing AvP(beautifully) on the

stage].
(66) [A taxi driver was riding his car AvP(carelessly)].

5.7 Prepositional Phrase (PP)

A prepositional phrase, based on structure, is
actually a noun phrase preceded by a preposition such as (in
the classroom), (of the book), (under the bridge), etc. Based
on function, a prepositional phrase functions as adverbial (A).

(67) [PP(By midnight) (our bus) (will have arived) PP(in the
harbour) PP(in Bali)].
(68) [PP(At campus), (most students) (will start) (a new
milestone) PP(for years)].

5.8 Genitive Phrase (GP)

Genitive phrase functions as either premodifier (M)
or head (H) in noun phrase. The structure of genitive phrase
is signed with paticle „s even though some other genitive
phrase is not marked by particle „s.

(69) [(GP(John‟s) mother) works as an English teacher in an

elementary school].
(70) [That house is (GP(mine))].

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EXERCISE

Identify the phrase classes of the following sentences (1-

5)!
1. My mom considers my younger brother naughty.
2. The news about corruption has become a political issue
in Indonesia recently.
3. Because of Economic problem, the people of Thailand
have been protesting violenty.
4. Most irresponsible politicians are not worried about
homeless people.
5. Many students are now taking long distance education.

Identify main and subordinate phrase/s on the following

sentences?
1. My father had a very large farm last year
2. The father of two sons worked hard in a big city of
Jakarta
3. Every student in the English department must have a
certificate of TOEFL test
4. The students of literature program are doing mid-test of
English Syntax
5. A beautiful young lady in her best dress is dancing
beautifully

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SUMMARY

Phrase Classes
 Noun Phrase (NP)
 Adjective Phrase (AjP)
 Adverb Phrase (AvP)
 Prepositional Phrase (PP)
 Genetive Phrase (GP)
 Verb Phrase (VP)
Main Phrase: a direct constituent of a clause which is not
a part of another phrase [... (Ph) ...]
 Subordinate Phrase: those which are part of other phrases
(...(Ph)...)
Example:
[(Mr. Brown) (has been living) (in his lovely house) (for
years)]. It is a sentence/ clause that consists of 4 main
phrases.
[(The daughter (of the king)) (has attracted) (men) (in the hall
(of a wedding party))]. It is a sentence/ clause that consists of
4 main phrases and 2 subordinate phrases.
 Phrases can be classified by their external function and
partly by their internal forms. In a phrase composed of
modifier and head, premodifier tend to be a single words
and postmodofiers tend to be phrases or clauses.
Examples:
(fast cars), (incredible films), (smart students), etc.
(State University (of Semarang)), (the girl [I met at the
party]),etc

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Noun Phrase
FUNCTION
• in the clause NP act as subject (S), object (O), complement
(C)
• NP can act as modifiers in other NP see page 61
STRUCTURE
• The Head (in the form of a noun, a pronoun, an adjective,
an enumerator, and genitive phrase)
• Premodifiers (in the form of determiners, enumerators,
adjectives, nouns, genitive phrase, etc.)

Pronoun and Determiner

Pronouns function as Head (H)
• personal pronoun (I, we, you, he, she, it, they, me, us,
them, myself, yourself, himself, herself, etc.)
• demonstrative pronouns (this, that, these, those)
• quantifier pronouns (general - all, some, any, none,
several; compound - everybody, someone, anything,
nobody; gradable - many, much, more, most, few, fewer,
little, least.
Determiners function as M
• article: the, a/an
• quantifier determiners (general - all, some, any, no, every;
gradable; w/h determiners).

Prepositional Phrase (PP)

• FUNCTION: as Adverbial (A) in the clause see page 64
• The adverbial PPs have various meanings - time, means
and place
• STRUCTURE: PP = p+NP (in the house)

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Genitive Phrase
• FUNCTION: as premodifiers (M) or as heads (H) in noun
phrase (NPs)
Example: (your sister)
NP(GP(your) sister) here GP functions as Modifier
(yours) NP(GP(yours))
• STRUCTURE: look like NP but with the particle (') and
some other irregular forms such as my, mine, yours, etc.

Adjective Phrase
• FUNCTION:
(1) in the clause AjP functions as complement (C)
Example:
(Your face) (is) (messy) subject complement
(That man) (has proposed) (a lady) (beautiful) object
complement
(2) in the phrase, AjPs can function as premodifiers in NPs
Example:
(a (very beautiful) daughter (of the president))
• STRUCTURE:
1. A single Head ( Head of AjP is an adjective such as big,
bigger, or biggest.
2. Modifier and Head (modifiers are always adverb such as
adverbs especially adverbs of degree like extremely, rather,
too, very). Postmodifiers can be either adverbs (indeed,
enough) or PPs.

Adverb Phrase
• FUNCTION - AvP functions as Adverbial (A) in the
clause
• STRUCTURE - the head of an adverb phrase is an adverb
(Av)

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Verb Phrase
• FUNCTION - VP always functions as Predicator (P) in the
clause
• STRUCTURE - two main elements of VP are main verb
(MV) and Auxiliaries (Aux)

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EVALUATION

Identify the following prepositional phrases. To which of PP

apply?

1. Two PPs postmodify the same head

2. One PP is subordinate to another PP
3. The interpretation is ambigious between (a) and (b)

Prepositional Phrases:
a. His interest on English of American literature
b. The leader of the gangster squad in China
c. A debate of a thesis in a class
d. The freedom of Indonesia in 1945
e. The highest poll of election in Indonesia

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 UNIT 6
CLAUSES

6.1 Clause Element

 Subject (S)
 Predicator (P)
 Object (O)
 Complement (C)
 Adverbial (A)

Example:
(71) [ S (Many people) P (are painting) O (their houses) C
(white) A (these days)].

1. Subject
The subject (S) normally precedes predicator (P),
and there is CONCORD between the subject and predicator
as regards number and person.

Example:
(72) [ S (Most women) P (love) O (mature men)].
(73) [ S (That man) P (hates) O (a spoiled woman)].

2. Predicator
The predicator is the only element which is A VERB
PHRASE.
Example:

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3. Object
The object is very closely tied to the predicator in
terms of meaning denoting to the person or thing affected by
the action or state, etc.

Example:
(74) [ S (Most executives) P (spend) O (their money) A (for
nothing)]. spend as action verb
(75) [ S (That scoundrel beast) P (loved) O (the most beautiful
princess)]. loved as state verb

4. Adverbials
Adverbials give circumstantial information, and
there is no fixed number of adverbials in a clause. They are
more mobile in the clause than the other elements of a clause.

Example:
(76) [ A (Actually) S (she) P (works) A (at home) A (these days].
(77) [ S (she) A (Actually) P (works) A (at home) A (these days].

Adverbials are so mobile so that they can be placed

in the middle of P (predicator) interrupting its element. And
we need a new symbol ( ˽ ).

Example:
(78) [ S (A new building) P (is A (now) being renovated)].

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Table 9. Details of adverbial usage:

Adverbial Type Eliciting Questions Example
Place Where? (on box)
Direction Where to/from? (to/from York)
Time - when When? (on Sunday)
Duration How long? (for a month)
Frequency How often? (once a week),
Manner How? In what (every day)
Agency manner? (quickly), (with
Goal By whom? confidence)
Reason To/ for whom? (by a tall dark
Condition Why? stranger)
Degree In what (to Marry), (for
circumstance? himself)
How much? How far? (because of her
mother)
[if you do the
dishes]
(completely), (to
some extent)

6.2 Complex Sentences

Clauses are commonly in the forms of main and
subordinate clauses. The description is as follow:
1. Main Clause [MCl]
Example:
(79) Se MCl [ (My dad) (works) (in Hongkong)].

2. Subordinate Clause [SCl]

Example:
(80) Se MCl [ (I) (will study) (abroad) SCl [if I get
scholarship this year]].

To analyze complex sentences, you must be familiar

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with kinds of simple sentence, compound sentence, complex

sentence and compound complex sentence. Clauses are
combined through COORDINATION and
SUBORDINATION.
Example:

(81) Se MCl [ (My mother) (reads) (novel) (in her spare

time)] and MCl [(my father) (watches) (football match)
(in television)].
(82) Se MCl [ SCl [If you have free time], (I) (will invite)
(you) (for a dinner)].

6.3 Declarative, Interogative And Imperative Clauses

1. Declarative Clause
It is the most basic form of the clause used to make
statement. Most of clause in English

Example:
(83) Jim will post the letter
(84) Peter often goes home late from work
(85) Black has lived in New York for ten years

2. Interrogative Clause
 Yes/No interrogative
It asks for yes/no answer. In an interrogative clause
that consists of finite operator, it is in the prominent position
before Subject (S) in the clause.
Example:
You will post the letter
(86) [ v Will S (you) P (post) O (the letter)]?

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If there is no operator in the declarative, then the

interrogative uses dummy auxiliary do
Example:
You got my e-mail
S P O
(87) [ v Did (you) ( V get) (my e-mail)]?

 WH-Interrogative
It asks one of the clause elements (S,O,C,A). WH-
words are placed before the finite operator.
Example:
(88) [ O (What) v did S (you) P (say)]?
A S P O
(89) [ (Where) v have (your family) (bought) (a
new house)]?
(90) [ O (Whose car) v is S (he) P (riding) A (now)]?
(91) [ A (How long) v will S (they) P (stay) A (in the hotel)]?

3. Imperative Clause
It is a declarative clause by deleting S and operator
verb
Example:
(92) [ P (Open) (page 100)]
(93) [ P (Submit) (your assignment)]

6.4 Active and Passive Clause

The object in the active clause is changed into
subject. The subject in the active clause becomes the agent
marked by PP.
Example:
(94) [ S (Picaso) P (painted) O (the picture) A (in 1800)].
(95) [ S (The picture) P (was painted) A (by Picaso) A (in

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1800)].

A clause pattern with an object can be changed into

a passive clause pattern with the same main verb and the
object functions as the subject resulting of clause pattern
changes.
Example:

1. [S, P, O] [S, P]
Jim caught the ball
The ball was caught by Jim
2. [S, P, Oi, Od] [S, P, Oi]
He sold me the car
The car was sold me by him
3. [S, P, O, C] [S, P, C]
They made her the headmaster
She was made the headmaster
4. [S, P, O, A] [S, P, A]
Jack put the paper in my bag
The paper was put in my bag by Jack

6.5 Finite And Non-Finite Clauses

To sing in class is difficult for some children but not
for Ceyda. She raises her hand constantly and loves to
sing an old classical song. She does her performance
and is very well prepared. Prepared students are
more successful. And Ceyda is doing well in school.
Sometimes Ceyda practices a little too much. The
teacher suggests her to concentrate the school
schedule. Other students are quiet and may think that
they don't have any bravery to sing. But the
teacher appreciates all the the students'

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 BASIC SYNTAX

interests and helps other students to stand out more.

Finite is the most important element in a clause

because it tells 1). tenses, and 2). modality. The finite is
found in verb phrase in the main clause (Most televisions
show unacceptable programs) or operator verb (The
government have made a new regulation) and in modal verbs
(The headmaster will be giving a speech in ten minutes). The
finite only occurs in verb phrases of a main clause.

Table 10. Finite and Non-finite

1 Finite clauses with primary verbs Non-finite clauses with
secondary verbs
Finite clauses are primary verbs as Non-finite clauses are
their main verbs. Tense, person and secondary verbs as their
number are found in a primary verb main verbs that is not
marked by tense (usually -ed in past) marked for tense, aspect,
and number (usually -s for 3rd mood, number and person. It
person). Acording to the 2002 cannot serve as the
revision of the Cambridge Grammar independent clause unless
of the English combined with an auxiliary
Language, finite and non-finite verbs verb (e.g., can, may, will). A
were renamed primary and secondary clause with secondary verb
verbs. is called a non-
finite clause. This is almost
always subordinate.
2 Marked For Tense Are Not Marked For Tense
Ceyda sing / sang a song. (regular [To sleep in class]
tense verb) is embarrassing.
Ceyda is beautiful. Ceyda and
Emma were silly. (irregular) [Singing in class] is
Ceyda writes a word. Emma wrote a challenging.
sentence. (irregular)
[Prepared students] are more
likely to pass the tests.
3 Have Subject Rarely Have Subject
Ceyda wishes that she understands the Ceyda wishes to [ __
lyrics. understand the lyrics].
It is surprising that she sings all the It is surprising for [her to

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difficult songs. [sing all the difficult songs].

4 Marked For Person Not Marked For Person
Ceyda sings her own song. (3rd Ceyda wants to [sing her
person) song].
Ceyda stands up to [sing her
song]. (purpose)
Ceyda helps us [memorize
the lyrics]. ("to" not
included)
It is hard for
Ceyda to [practice
seriously.]
5 Form Negative With Do + Not Form Negative With Not
Emma does not want to study in the Emma wants not to [study in
bedroom all day. the bedroom all day].
Emma is not there now. Emma prefers not [studying
in the bedroom all day]
Emma seems not to [be in
the library now].

[Not wanting to study all

day] is understandable.

Table 11. Verb Forms Types

1 Imperative Plain Form Infinitival “to” + Plain Form
 Submit your  John wants to [submit his
assignment assignment].
imperative (You) submit The clause is subordinated with
your assignment. the to marker.
 It is uneasy to [write a paragrapg.]
 It is uneasy for [students to [write a
paragraph]
The clause is subordinated
with for and to.
2 Full Clause Gerund + Participle
 Jack, who sits near  [Sitting near the window] is
the window, finds it uneasy.
uneasy. ("a gerund subject")
 Jack hates when  Jack dislikes sitting near the
he sits near the window.
window. ("a gerund object")
3 Full Clause Past Participle
 Marsha, [who Marsha, [loved by her friends], sings a

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 BASIC SYNTAX

is loved by her song.

friends], sings a ("a reduced adjective clause")
song.
4 Primary Verbs Gerund - Participle
 Brown dislikes [He  Brown hates standing quietly. Verb
stands calmly.] + Gerund

 Brown thinks that  Brown isn't interested

he is right with the in standing calmly. Verb + Prep
answer. Gerund
 Brown who loves  [Brown loving Syntax] raises his
the Syntax hand every time.
class raises his hand
every time.

Primary Verbs Past Participle

 The students  Fascinated, the children told the
[who were teacher to repeat the explanation.
fascinated] told the  The children [frustated by
teacher to repeat the Syntax] asked the teacher to repeat
explanation. the explanation.
 The students  John loves the value [inserted in the
[who were text]
frustated] told the
teacher to repeat the
expalantion.
 John loves the value
[that is inserted in
the text].

Non-finite verb phrases are also found in a clause

mostly in subordinate clauses in the forms of Vi, Ving and
Ven functioning as PREDICATOR (P). Modal verbs have no
non-finite forms.
Example:
(96) Se MCl [You must read the requirement SCl [if you VPP
( MvV need) that job]]. finite SCl
P
(97) Se MCl [It is a must SCl [for you VP (to read) the
requirement]]. non-finite SCl

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P
(98) Se MCl [ SCl [That living in an isolated civilization VP

( Auxv has Mv
V produced) a silent world] is a fact]. finite
SCL
P Mv
(99) Se MCl [ SCl [A traditional ethnic group Vp ( Ving having)
uncommon ways of life] has attracted visitors]. non-
finite SCL
(100) Se MCl [ SCl [Since we VpP ( Auxv are MVV done) with all
projects], all students may go home earlier]. finite SCl
(101) [ SCl [The museum VpP ( VingMv
being) renovated], some
students felt disappointed]. non-finite SCl

6.6 More on clauses

Clause elements are P, S, O, C, A. Furthermore,
some extra details of clause structure need to be our
discussion.
1. Object
Object consists of two main objects namely Direct
Object (Od) as the most usual kind of object and Indirect
Object (Oi) that occur between P and Od. The Oi is normally
optional (can be replaced by an A element, a PP introduced
by to or for after Od).

Example:
(102) [ S (Fatma) P (showed) Oi (me) Od (her ring)]
(103) [ S (Fatma) P (showed) Od (her ring) A (to me)]
(104) [ S (Filliz) P (bought) Oi (her sister) Od (a doll)]
(105) [ before S (Filliz) P (bought) Od (a doll) A (for her
sister)]

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 BASIC SYNTAX

2. Complement
Two kinds of complements are Subject Complement
(Cs) and Object Complement (Co). We can identify them by
their position and meaning. Cs gives the description of the
subject by normally following Predicator (P), and Co
describes the object by following the Od. A clause commonly
has one complement either Cs or Co.
Example:
(106) [ S (Jet Lee) P (is) Cs (a great artist) ]

(107) [ S (Many people) P

(thought) O
(Jet Lee) Co
(a great
artist)]

3. Peripheral Element (two closed classes of words =

conjunctions and interjections)
We treat them only as particle, so they are not
analyzed as phrases
Example:
(108) [ ij Ugh, (it) (is) (a quiz)]
(109) [ cj But, (I) (forget) (your invitation)]

4. Vocative (Voc)
It looks like an adverbial as it is mobile. And only
vocative can be omitted or moved to the end of the clause.

Example:
Voc
(110) Look at my eyes, Np (Jane)
Voc
(111) Np (Sir Edward), we have been waiting for you.

Look at the difference of the following two examples:

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Voc
(112) Np (John), submit the work
S
(113) Np (John) submits the work

6.7 Clause Patterns

Adverbials (A), peripheral elements and Vocative
are optional parts of the clause. When we strip away the
optional parts, now we have the Clause Pattern (Nucleus).

Example:
(114) So, you must be kidding me now, darling [cj, S, P, O,
A, Voc].
(115) The nucleus (clause pattern) is [S, P, O].

The main and obligatory element of a clause is [S, P]

and O, C, A will be obligatory that depend on the main verb.
The followings are the major clause patterns for English
1. [S,P] walk, die, work, come, run, sleep, dream, eat, loo,
behave, etc.
2. [S, P, Od] catch, hit, kiss, find, pull, work, run, dream, eat,
look, behave, etc.
3. [S,P,Oi] serve, tell, etc.
4. [S, P, Oi, Od] sell, give, tell, send, buy, make, etc.
5. [S, P, C] be, become, seem, look, appear, etc.
6. [S, P, Od, C] prove, call, make, think, etc.
7. *[S, P, A] be, stand, lean, live, reside, know, think, talk,
grieve, worry etc.
8. *[S, P, Od, A] put, place, keep, tell, inform, worry, etc.
6.8 The structure of Non-Finite Clause

Non-finite clause also occur in the clause structure

in the form of predicator. They are Infinitive Clause (Cli), -

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 BASIC SYNTAX

Ing Clause (Cling), and -En Clause (Clen). Even they do not
have finite verb, they can be analyzed based on clause
element (S, P, O, C, A) like in the finite clauses.

Example:
 Infinitive Clause
S P O
(116) [ cj for Np (you) Vp (to tell) Np (everyone)] / [S, P, O]
 -ING clause
S P A
(117) [ Np (John) Vp (living) AvP
(here)] / [S, P, A]
 -EN clause
S P A
(118) [ Np (Smith) Vp (shocked) Pp (with the news)] / [S, P, A]

Note:
- conjunction for precedes the subject
- the infinitive particle to precedes the VP
- The -EN clauses are passive in meaning, and have passive
clause pattern

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EXERCISE

1. Identify the clause structures (clause elements: S, P, O, A

or C) !
a. My wife always has a good cry over a wedding.
b. That story about live alligators in the canal has been
denied.
c. All of them were worrying about their own problems.
d. We „ll rehearse Regies‟s cat once again.
e. On wages policy the leader of the opposition is being
extremely cautious.
f. No doubt they will tell us the same old story tomorrow
2. Make sentences based on the following clause structure!
a. S, P
b. S, P, O
c. S, P, C
d. S, P, O, C
e. S, P, A, A

3. Make sentences based on the following elements!

a. 1 MCl
b. 1 MCl + 1 SCl
c. 2 MCl
d. 2 MCl + 1 SCl

4. Make 5 declarative sentences and change them into

interrogative sentences using WH-questions. Then, give
clause element symbols!

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 BASIC SYNTAX

SUMMARY

Adverbial Type Eliciting Questions Example

Place Where? (on box)
Direction Where to/from? (to/from York)
Time - when When? (on Sunday)
Duration How long? (for a month)
Frequency How often? (once a week), (every
Manner How? In what manner? day)
Agency By whom? (quickly), (with
Goal To/ for whom? confidence)
Reason Why? (by a tall dark stranger)
Condition In what circumstance? (to Marry), (for
Degree How much? How far? himself)
(because of her
mother)
[if you do the dishes]
(completely), (to some
extent)

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EVALUATION

Identify the main clause (MCl) and subordinate clause

(SCl) of the following sentences!
a. Salt water boils at a higher temperature, so food cooks
faster in salt water.
b. Diet is one factor of long life, but it is not the only
factor.
c. Japanese people eat a lot of fish and vegetables, and
they eat lightly.
d. Because the cost of education is rising, many students
must work part-time.
e. Students often suffer from culture shock when they
come to the United States.
f. More teenagers will migrate to cities if there is no jobs
available in their villages.
Identify clause elements of the following sentences!
a. Read the text carefully!
b. Don‟t eat that spoiled food!
c. Did your mother call you yesterday?
d. Has this university announced the scholarship?
e. Where did you buy that novel?
f. How often do you visit the library?
g. Why is your classmate crying now?

Find non-finite clause/s of the text above!

Strange Weather
The weather is strange this year. In the South, weather
marked by exceptionally high temperatures and exceptionally
little precipitation has destroyed crops. In the East, rain

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 BASIC SYNTAX

falling endlessly has flooded city streets. It is unusual for us

to have so much rain in the East and none in the South. In the
West, temperatures remain about the same. However,
precipitation has diminished.

Hurricane Irene Spoils Wedding Plans

Several couples hoped to marry this weekend. A hurricane

pounding the East Coast changed their plans. It was
impossible to hold their weddings as planned. Three couples
not wanting to delay decided to marry in Central Park. They
said their vows standing in the rain and undisturbed by barely
anyone.

Change the following sentences into passive, and give

clause element symbols!
1. Shakespeare wrote that play.
2. Bill will invite Ann to the party.
3. Shirley has suggested a new idea.
4. Ales is preparing the report.
5. Children should wash hands.
6. The government must have listened the
recommendation.
7. By 2016 most students will have completed the
undergraduate program.
8. People grow rice in Indonesia.

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94
 UNIT 7
SUBORDINATION AND COORDINATION

7.1 Subordination and coordination

A sentence is the highest unit of grammatical rank
scale. It does not have a structure of its lower levels such as
phrase and clause. The sentence is symbolized with a capital
letter and a full stop which consists of either a single clause
(simple sentence) or more clauses (complex sentence).

(119) [ I will be abroad tomorrow].

(120) [ My mom usually prepares breakfast in the morning],
and [my dad is busy with his newspaper].
(121) [ [If I get the scholarship this year], I will find one of
the most qualified universities in Europe].

Number (127) is an example of a simple sentence

consisting of a single clause, and number (128) is in the form
of a complex sentence constructed by two main clauses
coordinated by conjunction and. Meanwhile, number (129) is
classified as a complex sentence which consists of two
clauses (subordinate and main clauses) subordinated by if
clause. The subordinate is a part of the main clause.

7.2 Subordinate Clause (SCl)

Subordinate clauses can be recognized in part by
their function and their internal structure.
(a) Function
Within a clause SCl can function as Subject (S),
Object (O), Complement (C) and Adverbial (A).

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(122) [ S [What the people need] is a better education

program].
(123) [As a professional teacher, you should know O [What
the people need].
(124) [A better education program is C [ What the people
need].
(125) [An accident just happened A [while we were having a
chat beside B3 building]].

(b) Structure
In the internal structure, SCl are divisible into the
clause elements (S, P, O, C, A). If not, they can not be
justified as a clause.

Example:
S
(126) [ [ O (What) S (the people) P (need)] P
(is) C
(a better
education program)].

The status of subordinate clauses are indicated by the

following markers:
A SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTION ( if, when, that,
because, although)
A WH-CLAUSE ELEMENT (what, who, whoever, which
girl, what time, how)
A NON-FINITE PREDICATOR (Cli, Cling, Clen) in the
forms of Vi, Ving, Ven functioning as predicator (P) rarely
occur as the main clauses.

A
(127) John will look gorgeous [ cj if S (he) P
(wears) O
(that
suit)].
A
(128) John will look gorgeous [ O (whatever) S
(he) P

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 BASIC SYNTAX

(wears)].
A
(129) John will look gorgeous [ P (wearing) O
(that suit)].

7.3 Finite Subordinate Clauses

A. Noun CLauses (NCl)
THAT clauses (with the cj ‘that’)
(130) [ S [That ghosts exist at campus] P (is) C
(controversial)]
(131) [ (Most students) P (believe) O [that ghosts exist at
S

campus]]

Zero That Clause (just the same like that clause, but we
eliminate cj „that‟)

(132) [ S (My mom) P (told) O (me) O [that she had been in

Bali]]
(133) [ S (My mom) P (told) O (me) O [she had been in Bali]]

WH- clauses functioning as S, O, C, A, etc.

(134) [ S [Who screamed last night] is a mystery].
(135) [My mom asked me O [how I missed the plane]].
(136) [A man can choose O [whichever girl he prefers to
marry]].

B. Adverbial Clauses (ACl)

Adverbial clauses are the same as adverbs and
phrases which act as adverbials and they can be classified
semantically according to what questions they answer as the
following table:

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Table 12. How to identify adverbial clauses

Adverbial clause Eliciting Subordinating
of Question conjunctions
Place Where? Where, wherever
Time When When, before, after,
as, while, until, since,
Manner/ How? whenever
comparison Why? As, as if, though
Reason Why? Because, as, since
Purpose - So that, in order that
Condition - If, unless
Contrast Although, though

Examples:
(137) [ I will go A [wherever I can earn money for my
family]]. PLACE
(138) [ Some students are heading to the canteen A [because
the teacher will treat them]]. (REASON)
(139) [ A [After I got the scholarship], I directly called my
mom]. TIME

C. Relative CLauses (RCl)

Relative clauses function as postmodifiers in a noun
phrase (NP) or prepositional phrase (PP), and it is as a part of
another clause. The finite relative clauses are preceded by
relative pronouns (such as who, which, whom, etc).

Look at the following example:

O H M
(140) [Have you met NP ( pn anyone RCl [who can speak five
languages])]?
(141) [Did you buy NPO ( Md the H
N novel M
RCl [which I have been
longing to have])]?

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 BASIC SYNTAX

Relative clauses are introduced by 1). WH- word, 2).

That, and 3). Zero
Example:
(142) [Did you see (the speaker [who has written hundreds of
books])]?
(143) [Do you have (extra money [that I can borrow])]?
(144) [Did you get (the package [you ordered last year])

Beside Relative pronouns, some relative adverbs

(where, when, that) also introduce relative clauses.

Example:
M
(145) (the campus RCl [ A (where) S
(I) P
(spent) O
(my
study)])
M A
(146) (the day RCl [ (when) S (I) P
(proposed) O
(her)])

Another form of relative clause is by the use of

prepositional phrase, the relative pronoun of which acts as the
Head.
Example:
M
(147) (the special day RCl [ PPA ( p in HN which) (I) (graduated)].
(148) (a beautiful wife M
RCl [ PPA (with H
N whom) (I) (spend) (my
time)].

D. Comparative Clause
Comparative clauses postmodify not only nouns, but
also adjectives and adverbs. They follow a comparative form
such as more, less, bigger and introduced by the conjunction
than.
Example:

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A Handbook for Undergraduate Student of English

O M
(149) In Indonesia, most people get NP (less money CCl [than
they have expected]).
C M
(150) My second child is AjP (naughtier CCl [than his older
brother is now]).

E. Prepositional Clause (PCl)

How a prepositional clause works is the same as
prepositional phrases in which it is preceded by a proposition
(p+NCl). They function as Adverbials and Postmodifiers.

Example:
A
(151) My mom was surprised PCl [at what I had done].
M
(152) It is (a mystery PCl [of who have committed the crime]).

7.4 Non-finite Subordinate Clauses

Three classes of non-finite clauses based on their
forms of the predicators:
1. Infinitive clauses (Cli)
Example:
(153) [They advised him O [ P (to resign) O (his job) A
(immediately)]].

2. -ING clauses (Cling)

Example:
(154) [ S [ P (Seeing) O (a ghost) A
(in your bedroom)] is a
serious matter].

3. -EN clauses (Clen)

Example:
(155) [[ P (Depressed) A
(by unlucky life)], John tried to find

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 BASIC SYNTAX

another fortune].

7.5 Non-finite noun clauses

1. Infinitive Noun Clauses (NCli)
Example:
Od P O A
(156) [They advised him NCli [ (to resign) (his job)
(immediately)]].
Od S P A
(157) [I want NCli [ (all of you) (to listen) (carefully)]].

1. -ING Noun Clauses (NCling)

Example:
(158) [ NClingS [ P (Seeing) O
(a ghost) A
(in your bedroom)] is a
serous matter].

7.6 Non-finite adverbial clauses

1. Infinitive Adverbial Clauses (ACli)
Example:
P O
(159) [People work overtime ACliA [ cj in order (to earn)
(extra money)]].
(160) [ ACliA [ P (To escape) O
(detection)], he wore an indigo
hairpiece].

2. -ING adverbial Clauses (ACling)

Example:
(161) [ AClingA [ P (Running) A
(from all problems)], Bill usually
visits a bar for some beer].

3. -EN Adverbial Clauses (AClen)

Example:

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(162) [ AClenA [ P (Depressed) A

(by unlucky life)], John tried to
find another fortune].

7.7 Non-finite relative clause

1. Infinitive Relative Clause (RCli)
Example:
M
(163) NP (some tools RCli [ A (with which) P
(to do) O
(the job)
A
(properly)]).

2. -ING Relative Clause (RCling)

Example:
M
(164) [We talked (to the peasants RCling [ P (working) A
(in the
rice fields)])].

3. -EN Relative Clause

Example:
M O A
(165) NP (the information RClen [(given) (us) (at the post
office)]).

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 BIBLIOGRAHPY

[1] Bamberg, B. 1983. What makes a text coherent?

College Composition and Communication, 34(4), 417-
429.
[2] Brown, K. and Jim M. 1971. Syntax. London:
Routledge
[3] Coulthard, 1994. Advanced in Written Text Analysis.
London: Routledge
[4] Eggins, S. 1994. An Introduction to Systemic Functional
Linguistic. London: Pinter
[5] Gerot, L. and Wignell, P. 1994. Making Sense of
Functional Grammar. Australia: Gerd Stabler.
[6] Halliday, M.A.K. & Hasan, Ruqaiya. 1976. Cohesion in
English. New York: Longman
[7] Halliday, M.A.K. 1986. An Introduction to Functional
Grammar. London: Edward-Arnold
[8] Leech, G., Margaret D, and Robert H. 1986. English
Grammar for Today. London: Macmillan
[9] Matthews, P.H. 1981. Syntax. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
[10] Nunan, D. 1993. Discourse Analysis. London:
Penguin Group
[11] Oshima, A & Hogue, A. 1999. Writing Academic
English. New York: Pearson
[12] Paltridge, B. 2001. Genre and the Language Learning
Classroom. Michigan: The University of Michigan
Press.
[13] Rankema, Jan. 1993. Discourse Studies: An Introductory
Textbook. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing
Company.

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[14] Wang, Lixia. 2007. Theme and Rheme in the Thematic

Organization of Text: Implications for Teaching
Academic Writing. Asian EFL Journal, Vol.9, No 1.
[15] Wells, G. 1987. Apprenticeship in Literacy. In
Interchange 18, 1/2: 109-123. Witte, Stephen P. &
Faigley, Lester. 1981. Coherence, Cohesion and
Writing Quality. College Composition and
Communication, 32, 189-204.

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 Author

Arif Suryo Priyatmojo is a full-time lecturer in the English

Department, Faculty of Languages and Arts, Universitas
Negeri Semarang. He received his bachelor degree (English
Education) and master degree (English Education) in
Universitas Negeri Semarang. His interests cover ICT in
Language Learning and English Syntax. Some of his books
are „ICT Dalam Pembelajaran Bahasa Inggris’ (2017),
„Learning English in the Digital Era: Edmodo, TED-ed,
Moodle, Online Radio and Twitter’ (2018), „Laboratorium
Bahasa Di Perguruan Tinggi’ (2019) and „Basic Syntax: A
handbook for undergraduate student of English‟ (2019). He
has written some articles published in national and
international journals such as Language Circle, REGISTER,
and AWEJ Journals. The author has also presented many
topics related to his interest in national and international
conferences.

, TED-ed, Skype, Moodle, Radio

Online, Twitter)

105
 Penerbit
LPPM
Universitas Negeri Semarang

Gedung Prof. Retno Sriningsih Satmoko Lantai 2

Kampus Sekaran Gunungpati Semarang
Kode Pos: 50229 Telp: (024) 8508089 Fax: (024)8508089
Email: lppm@[Link]

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