LDRP Institute of Technology & Research, Gandhinagar

Department of Civil Engineering

BE- Sem VII
Building Services

Fire Protection
Building need to be designed to offer an acceptable level of fire safety and
minimise the risks from heat and smoke.

 The primary objective is to reduce to within acceptable limits the

potential for death or injury to the occupants of a building and others who
may become involved, such as the fire and rescue service, as well as to
protect contents and ensure that as much as possible of a building can
continue to function after a fire and that it can be repaired.
 The risk to adjoining properties also needs to be considered, as well as
possible environmental pollution.

Reason of occurrence of fire:

 Fire occurs as a result of a series of very rapid chemical reactions

between a fuel and oxygen that releases heat and light.
 For combustion to occur, oxygen, heat and a fuel source must all be
present; this is the ‘fire triangle’. Flames are the visible manifestation of
combustion.

The 'flash point' is the temperature to which a fuel has to be heated for the gases
given off to flash when an ignition source is applied.

The 'fire point' is the temperature to which a fuel has to be heated for the
vapours given off by the fuel to sustain ignition.

The 'spontaneous ignition temperature' is the temperature at which these

vapours ignite spontaneously without the application of an external flame. Once
ignition has begun and the vapours ignited, flames will in turn heat the fuel and
increase the rate of production of flammable vapours.

COMMON FIRE HAZARDS

Some common fire hazards are:

1. Kitchen fire from unattended cooking, such as frying, boiling and Simmering.

2. Electrical systems those are overloaded, resulting in hot wiring or

connections, or failed components.

3. Combustible storage areas with insufficient protection.

4. Combustibles near equipment that generates heat, flame, or sparks.

5. Candles and other often flames

6. Smoking (cigarettes, cigars, pipes, lighters, etc.).

7. Equipment that generates heat and utilizes combustible materials.

8. Flammable liquids and aerosols.

9. Flammable solvent (and rags soaked with solvent) placed in enclosed trash
cans.

10. Fireplace chimneys not properly or regularly cleaned.

11. Cooking appliances-stoves, ovens.

12. Heating appliances-fireplaces, wood burning stoves, furnaces, boilers,

portable heaters.

13. Household appliances-clothes dryers, curling irons, hair dryers,

refrigerators, freezers.

14. Chimneys that concentrate creosote.

15. Electrical wiring in poor condition.

16. Leaking Batteries.

17. Personal ignition sources-matches, lighters

18. Electronic and electrical equipment

19. Exterior cooking equipment-barbecue

Definitions:

1) Heat:

The severity of a fire can be measured by the amount of heat produced.

2) Fire Load:

Fire load is the amount of heat in kilocalories (kcal) which is liberated per
square meter of floor area of any compartment by the combustion of the
contents of the buildings and any combustible part of the building itself. This
amount of heat is used as the basis of grading of occupancies.

Fire load = (weight of all combustible material x their calorific value)/

Floor area

Indian standard (IS: 1641-1960) grades the fire load into the following
three classes:

a) Low fire load: Not exceeding 275000 kcal/m3; domestic buildings, hotels,
offices and similar buildings

b) Moderate fire load: Exceeding 275000 kcal/m3 but below 550000 kcal/m3;
trading establishments and factories

c)High fire load: Value between 550000 kcal/m3 – 1100000 kcal/m3; godawns

Some materials with same weight and same calorific value may have different
hazards on account of their properties of rate of ignition, speed of burning and
liberation of dangerous fumes.

Based on this materials are classified as Non-Hazardous (NH), Hazardous(H)

and Extra Hazardous(EH)

Grading of Structural Elements:

Structural elements of buildings are graded, for fire resistance, by the time for
which they resist a standard fire of given time temperature grading. The time –
temperature grading is based on, observations in actual fires. The relationship
between the Actual fire expressed as fire load and the standard fire is
established by burning down weights of combustible material corresponding to
different classes of fire load, so as to match the time temperature grading of the
standard fire.

3) Fire resistance rating

A fire-resistance rating typically means the duration for which a

passive fire protection system can withstand a standard fire resistance test. This
can be quantified simply as a measure of time, or it may entail a host of other
criteria, involving other evidence of functionality or fitness for purpose.

4) Fire prevention: covering aspects of fire prevention pertaining to

design and construction of buildings on passive fire protection
measures also describing the various types of building materials and
their fire rating.

5) Life safety : Covering life safety provisions in the event of fire and
similar emergency, also addressing construction and occupancy
features that are necessary to minimize danger to life from fire,
smoke, fumes or panic.

6) Fire protection: covering the significant accessories and their related

components and guidelines for selecting the correct type of equipment
and installation meant for fire protection of the building depending on
the classification and type of building
7) Flammable:Material that can catch fire and burn easily at normal
working temperatures [as per OSHA - 100°F (37.8°C)]
8) Combustible :Material that requires higher than normal temperatures
to ignite
9) Down-comer :An arrangement of firefighting within the building by
means of down-comer pipe connected to terrace tank through terrace
pump, gate valve and non-return valve and having mains not less than
100 mm internal diameter with landing valves on each floor / landing

 Classification of buildings as per national building code NBC

Group ‘A’ - Residential: Lodgings, Dwellings, Dormitories, Flats, Hotels.

Group ‘B’ - Educational: School, Colleges, Recreations.

Group ‘C’ - Institutional: Hospitals, Homes for aged, Orphanages, Jails, Mental,
Hospital, reformatories.

Group ‘D’ - Assembly: Theatres, Drama Hall, Assembly Halls, Auditorium,

Exhibition, Restaurants, Place of workshop, Terminal etc.
Group ‘E’ - Business: Office, Labs, Computer Installations

Group ‘F’ - Mercantile: Shops, Stores, Market.

Group ‘G’ - Industrial: Assembly Plants, Labs, Pumping stations, Refineries,

Saw mills.

Group ‘H’ - Storage: All types of storages, Sheds, trucks & marine terminals,
Garages, Hangars, Stables.

Group ‘J’ - Hazardous: Used to store highly combustible or explosive materials

which may produce poisonous fumes or explosions or toxic etc.

 Some of the NBC regulations:

 All buildings, which are 15 m in height or above, and all buildings used
as educational, assembly, institutional, industrial, storage, and hazardous
occupancies and mixed occupancies with any of the aforesaid
occupancies, having area more than 500 m2 on each floor shall have:
 minimum of two staircases
 They shall be of enclosed type.
 One of them shall be on external walls of buildings
 Shall open directly to the exterior, interior open space or to an open place
of safety.

 WIDTH OF ROAD

Sections: - As per section 4.6 (a) of part 3 & 7.4.1 (a) of part IV of N.B.C.

The road which abuts a High rise building to be constructed shall be more then
width. The road should be hard surfaced to carry a minimum weight of 18,000
Kgs, the maximum weight of a Fire Engine.

 ENTRANCE WIDTH & HEIGHT CLEARANCE

Section:- As per section 4.6 (c) of part C & 7.4.1(d) of part IV of N.B.C.

Every High rise building should have at least 2 means of access, one remote to
the other, of minimum width 4.5m. with height clearance of 5m. This minimum
width is essential to facilitate free movement of fire units.

 SETBACK OR OPEN SPACES

Section: As per table 2 of section [Link] of part III of N.B.C.

Sufficient open space (setbacks) around residential buildings is essential to
facilitate free movement and operation of Fire Service vehicles.

For other Occupancies the setbacks shall have to be allowed as follows:

a. Educational buildings - Except for nursery schools, the open space shall not
be less than 6 meters.

b. Institutional buildings - open space shall not be less than 6 meters.

c. Assembly building - Except in front, open space shall not be less than 6 meter
and front open space shall not be less than 12 meters.

d. Business/Mercantile & storage building –

Open space around the building shall not beless than 4.5meters. It can be
relaxed incertain circumstances.

e. Industrial/Hazardous building –

Minimum 4.5 meters open space shall be kept around the building for the height
upto16 meters. Open space shall be increased by 0.25meters for next each 1
meter height of the building.

 Car Parking in Setback / Open Spaces.

If the setback area / open spaces is more then 12 meter, the provision for car
parking can be done in the setback or open spaces at the periphery of the
courtyard leaving the 6 meter motorable road.

CAR PARKING

Section – As per section B/8 of appendix ‘B’ of part III of N.B.C Car Parking
shall have to be done at the basement with provision for minimum 2 ramps one
remote to other.

STAIRCASES

Section :- As per section 12.18 of part III, 8.5.1 (Table 24),.6.2,8.9,8.10,8.13,

9.3.5(a),10.4.1,11.3.2 of part IV & appendix D1.3,D1.4 of part of NBC.

a) Every high rise building Have minimum 2 numbers of Staircases.

b) Width of staircases varies from 1 m. to 2 m.

C) For residential building width of staircases should be 1 metre.

d) Out of 2 staircases, 1 can be used as a fire escape staircase.

e) Width of fire escape should be minimum 0.75 meter.

f) Number of staircases shall be given as per the travel distances.

g) Staircase shall not be extended to basement to prevent smoke , heat& gases.

From the basement smoke, heat 7 gases can be travel to upper floors.

h) Access to the basement from the ground should be through a separate

staircase, which is not connected to main staircase (i.e. It should be remote to
each other.)

i) Staircase shall be of enclosed type to prevent entry of smoke & fire to the
staircase & vice versa.

j) Spiral staircase shall be provided up to 9 metre. Height.

k) External staircase normally shall not be allowed.

 LIFTS

Section:- as per section 18 of part III & 6.18 & appendix A.15 of part IV of
NBC.

a) Minimum 1 lift capable of carrying minimum 8 persons weighing 545 kgs.

Shall be provided for every high rise building.

b) Landing doors of lifts shall open to ventilated lobby & shall have a fire
resistance of 1 hour.

c) 1 lift shall be designed as a “Fire Lift”

d) “Fireman Switch” shall be provided for each lift.

e) Lifts shall not be used as means of evacuation.

f) Collapsible gates shall not be provided for the lift.

g) If more than 1 lifts are installed the partition wall should be of minimum 2
hours fire resistance.

 THE REFUGE AREA

Section: As per section 8.12.3 on part IV of NBC, the refuge area shall be
provided on the periphery of the floor & open to air at least on one side
protected with suitable railing.
a) For floors above 24m & up to 39m one refuge area on the floor immediately
above 24m.

b) For floors above 39m one refuge area on the floor immediately above 39m &
so on after 15m refuge area shall be provided

 SERVICE DUCTS

As per appendix D 1.9 part IV of N.B.C. all the services ducts, if provided,
should have to be enclosed by walls of at least 2 hour fire resistance& should
have to be sealed at every alternate floor with non-combustible materials having
at least 2 hour fire resistance. The sealing at floor level is to prevent travel of
smoke & fire to the upper floors through the ducts.

 Emergency and escape lighting:

 Shall be powered from a source independent of that supplying the normal

lighting
 Should be capable of providing adequate illumination along such routes
to allow safe movement of persons towards and through the exits.
 Shall be capable of ensuring that fire alarm call points and fire fighting
equipments provided along the escape routes can be readily located

Escape lighting luminaries should be sited at the following locations:

 Near each intersection of corridors

 At each exit door

 Near each change of direction in the escape route.

 Near each staircase

 Water storage for Fire fighting in Residential buildings :

Static water storage (SWS): The static storage is provided at the ground level
and terrace level of the building by means of water storage tanks.

The storage is provided generally in such a way that the municipal water supply
is first received in the fire static storage tank from where it overflows to the
domestic tank. Thus water will always be available in the event of a fire

 For buildings upto 15 m SWS is not required but it is mandatory to have

5000-10000 litre capacity OHT
  For building higher than 15 m but less than 35 m SWS is not required but
it is mandatory to have 25,000 litre capacity OHT

 For building higher than 35 m but less than 45 m SWS should have
75,000 litres and 5,000 litre in OHT as reserve

 For building higher than 45 m but less than 60 m SWS should have 1,
50,000 litres and 10,000 litre in OHT as reserve

 For building higher than 60 m SWS should have 2,00,000 litres and
10,000 litre in OHT as reserve

 Classification of Fire:
Class-A

Fires involving ordinary combustible materials like wood, paper,

textiles, rubber etc.

Commonly used house hold materials like paper, card board, wood and products
made from these materials

Foam or plastic cups, utensils when close to heat burn rapidly and give off toxic
dense black smoke Oily rags or other materials soaked in oil can also
spontaneously combust

Class-B

Fires involving flammable liquids or liquefiable solids, such as

oils, solvents, petroleumproducts, paints, varnishes etc.

The unsafe storage, dispensing or disposal of flammable liquids can be a prime

source of this type of fires and explosions

Commonly used flammable liquids like Oil, grease, diesel, petrol, paint,
solvents and tar are primary source of these fires.
Class-C

Over loaded circuits, fuse boxes, damaged wiring and defective

switches can lead to this type of fires

Extension chords, multi plug adapters etc. can also lead to initiation of sparks
which if come in contact with flammable materials can cause fire

Class-D

Fire involving combustible metal such as Magnesium, sodium

Zinc, Titanium etc

Hot work involving metals and open flames can cause this fire hazard

Machines when not lubricated properly can over heat and start fire

Combustible metals like magnesium, titanium, zirconium, sodium, lithium

and potassium can react with extinguishing material used in A,B,C type of
fires and increase the intensity of fire hence special type of Extinguishers are
needed for D-type fires

 Fire Resisting Materials

Characteristics of fire resisting materials
An ideal fire resisting material should possess the following characteristics:

 The material should not disintegrate under the effect of great heat.
 The expansion of the material due to heat should not be such that it
leads to instability of the structure of which it forms a part.
 The contraction of the material due to sudden cooling with water
(during fire extinguishing process) after it has been heated to a high
temperature should not be rapid.

In relation to fire, building materials can be divided into two types:

 Non-combustible materials: These materials do not contribute to the

growth or spread of fire, but are damaged and decomposed when high
 temperatures are reached. Examples of non- combustible materials
are: stones and bricks, concrete, clay products, metal, glass etc.

 Combustible materials: Combustible materials are those which,

during fire, combine exothermically with oxygen, resulting in
evolution of lot of heat and giving rise to flame or glow. Such
materials burn and also contribute to the growth of fire. Examples of
these materials are: wood and wood products, fiberboard, straw board
etc.

 Fire Resisting Properties of Common

Building Materials:
Stone:
Stone is a non-combustible building material and also a bad
conductor of heat and does not contribute to the spread of fire.
 It is a bad fire-resisting material since it is liable to disintegrate
into small pieces when heated and suddenly cooled, giving rise
to failure of structure.
 Granite, on exposure to severe heat, explodes and disintegrates.
 Limestone is the worst, since it is easily crumbled even under
ordinary fire.
 Sand stone of compact composition (fine grained) can however,
stand the exposure to moderate fire without serious cracks.
 In general, the use of stone in a fire-resisting construction
should be restricted to a minimum.

Bricks
 Brick is a poor conductor of heat. First class bricks moulded
from good clay can stand exposure to fire for a considerable
length of time, up to temperatures of about 1200°C.
 Brick masonry construction, with good mortar and better
workmanship, is the most suitable for safeguarding the structure
against fire hazards.
Asbestos cement
 It is formed by combining fibrous asbestos with Portland
cement.
 It has low coefficient of expansion and has property of
incombustibility.
 Asbestos cement products are largely used for construction of
fire-resistant partition walls, roofs, etc.
 It is also used as protective covering to other structural
members.
Concrete
 The behavior of concrete during exposure to heat varies with
the nature of coarse aggregate and its density, and the quality of
Cement.
 Aggregates expand on heating while ordinary cement shrinks on
heating.
 These two opposite actions may lead to spalling of the concrete
surface. Aggregates obtained from igneous rocks containing
higher calcareous content, tend to crack more while the
aggregates like foamed slag, cinder and bricks are better.
 Concrete offers a much higher resistance to fire than any other
building material. Reinforced concrete structures can withstand
fire lasting for several hours with a temperature of 1000°C
without serious damage.
Steel
 Though steel is non-combustible, it has very low fire resistance,
since it is a good conductor of heat.
 During fire, it gets heated very soon, its modulus of elasticity
reduces and it loses its tensile strength rapidly.
 Unprotected steel beam sags and unprotected columns or struts
buckle, resulting in the collapse of structures.
 If the surface paint on these steel components is not fire
resistant structure, it is essential to protect structural steel
members with some coverings of insulating materials like brick,
terra-cotta, concrete etc.
Glass
 Glass is poor conductor of heat, and its thermal expansion is
also less.
 When it is heated and then suddenly cooled, cracks are formed.
 These cracks can be minimized if glass is reinforced with steel
wire netting.
 Reinforced glass is more fire resistant, and can resist variations
in temperature without serious cracks.
  Rein- forced glass has higher melting point. Even if cracks are
formed, the embedded wires hold the cracked portion in
position.
 Commonly used for fire-resisting doors, windows, done
skylights, etc
Timber
 Timber is a combustible material. It ignites and gets rapidly
destroyed during fire, if the section is small.
 If timber is used in thick sections, it possesses the properties of
self insulation and slow burning.
 During exposure to fire, timber surface gets charred; this
charred portion acts as protective coating to the inner portion.
 If the temperatures are higher than 500°C, timber gets
dehydrated under continued exposure, giving rise to
combustible volatile gases which readily catch fire.
Aluminum
 It is very good conductor of heat. It has very poor fire-resistant
properties.
 Its use should be restricted to only those structures which have
very fire risks.
Cast-iron and wrought iron
 Cast iron behaves very badly in the event of fire.
 On sudden cooling, it gets contracted and breaks down into
pieces or fragments, giving rise to sudden failure.
 It is rarely used in fire- resistant building unless suitably
covered by bricks, concrete etc.
 Wrought iron behaves practically in the same way as mild steel.
Plaster or mortar
 Plaster is non-combustible. Hence it should be used to protect
walls and ceilings against fire risk.
 Cement plaster is better than lime plaster since the latter is
likely to be calcined during fire.
 Using it in thick layers or reinforcing it with metal laths can
increase the fire-resistance of plaster.
 Gypsum plaster, when used over structural steel members,
makes them better fire resistant
 Stucco is a material made of an aggregate, a binder, and water.
 It is used as decorative coating for walls and ceilings and as a
sculptural and artistic material in architecture. Stucco may be
used to cover less visually appealing construction materials
such as metal, concrete or clay brick and adobe.
 Modern stucco is made of Portland cement, sand and lime, and
it serves as an excellent and durable fire-resistant finish material
for buildings.
 It can cover any structural material, such as brick or wood.
 It usually consists of two or three coats over metal reinforcing
mesh. A one-inch (2.54-centimeter) layer of stucco can easily
lend a 1-hour fire rating to a wall

 Fire Resistant Construction

 In a fire resistant construction, the design should be such
that the components can withstand fire as an integral
member of structure, for the desired period.

Walls and columns:

 Masonry walls and columns should be made of thicker
section so that these can resist fire for a longer time, and
can also act as barrier against spread of fore to the
adjoining areas.
 In the case of solid load-bearing walls, bricks should be
preferred to stones.
 If walls are to be made of stone, granite and limestone
should be avoided.
 In the case of building with framed structure, R.C.C.
should be preferred to steel.
 If steel is used for the framed structure, the steel
structural components should be properly enclosed or
embedded into concrete, terracotta, brick, gypsum plaster
board or any other suitable material, as illustrated in the
figure below:
 All walls, whether load bearing or non-load bearing,
should be plastered with fire- resistive mortar.
Floors and roofs
 For better fire resistance, slab roof is preferred to sloping
or pitched roofs.
 If it is essential to provide sloping roof, trusses should
either be of R.C.C. or of protected rigid steel with
fireproof covering.
 For better fire resistance, the floor should be either of
R.C.C. or of hollow tiled ribbed floor of concrete jack
arch floor with steel joists embedded in concrete.
 If floor is made of timber, thicker joists at a greater
spacing should be used, and fire stops or barriers should
be provided at suitable interval.
 The flooring materials like concrete tiles, ceramic tiles,
bricks etc. are more suitable for fire resistance.
 If cast iron, wrought iron, corks carpet, rubber tiles etc.
are to be used; these should be protected by a covering of
insulating materials like ceramic tiles, plaster, terracotta,
bricks etc.

Wall Openings
 From the point of view of fire spread, openings in the
walls should be a bare minimum.
 Openings serve means of escape. Hence these should be
properly protected by suitable arrangements, in case of
fire.
 Doors and windows should be made of steel. Fire
resistant doors can be obtained by fixing steel plates to
both the sides of the door.
 Wire-glass panels are preferred for windows.
 Rolling shutter doors should be used for garages,
godowns, shops etc.
 In case of timber doors, minimum thickness of door leaf
should be 4 cm. and that of door frame as 8 to 10 cm.
 All escape doors should be such as to provide free
circulation to the persons in passages, lobbies, corridors,
stairs etc., and should be made of fire proofing material.

Strong room construction

 A strong room construction is found to be useful in case
of safe deposit vaults in banks, Following are the
important features of construction:
 The walls, doors and ceilings of a strong room are made
of atleast 30 cm thick cement concrete. If thin R.C.C.
walls are used, they should have a covering of bricks or
terra cotta and then suitably plastered with fire-resistant
plaster
 Doors and windows are well anchored to concrete walls
by large number of steel holdfasts longer in length.
 Doors and windows should be fireproof. It is preferable
to have double fireproof door.
 Windows and ventilators should be covered by special
grills made of 20 mm steel square bars. These grills
should be well fixed to concrete walls by means of long
steel holdfasts.
 TYPES OF CONSTRUCTION :
1. Fireproof construction
2. Noncombustible construction
3. Exterior protected construction
4. Wood construction
1. FIREPROOF
CONSTRUCTION (Fire Resistive
Construction)
 Construction of buildings that resist fire damage and
prevent the spread of fire. Fireproof building containing
only no burning components, Such as steel, terra-cotta,
Plaster, and concrete Fire-resistance requirements can
range from 3 to 4 hour. Buildings may be used as high-
rise office buildings, shopping centers, or residential
units. For buildings 15 m in height or above. Buildings
may be used as high-rise office buildings, shopping
centers, or residential units.
Fire-resistance requirements have the following
ratings as a range.
 Exterior bearing walls: 3 to 4 hours.
 Interior bearing walls: 2 to 4 hours.
 Columns: 2 to 4 hours.
 Beams, girders, trusses, and arches: 2 to 4 hours.
 Floors: 2 to 3 hours.
 Roof: 1-1/2 to 2 hours.

2. NONCOMBUSTIBLE
CONSTRUCTION
 Construction using masonry materials, Brick or
concrete, on the outside walls of the structure,And
noncombustible materials for the roof and floor. For
buildings 15 m in height or above Fire-resistance
requirements can range from 2to 3 hour. Construction
using masonry materials, Brick or concrete, on the
outside walls of the structure, And Non combustible
materials for the roof and floor. Buildings may be
used as office buildings.
 Fire-resistance requirements shall have, as a
minimum, the following ratings:
 Exterior bearing walls: 0 to 2 hours.
 Interior bearing walls: 0 to 2 hours.
 Columns: 0 to 2 hours.
 Beams, girders, trusses, arches: 0 to 2 hours.
 Floors: 0 to 2 hours.
 Roof: 0 to 1 hour
3. EXTERIOR PROTECTED
CONSTRUCTION (Ordinary
Building)
 Construction in which all structural elements of
exterior walls are of non-combustible materialsFire-
resistance requirements for all elements can range
from 0 to 1 [Link] may be retail stores, mixed
occupancy, dwellings, and apartment [Link]
the exterior load-bearing walls shall be non
combustible or limited combustible, and shall have as
a minimum a 1-hour rating.
 They also may be required to be protected and to
have the following fire-resistance ratings:
 Interior bearing walls: 0 to 1 hour.
 Columns: 0 to 1 hour.
 Beams, girders, trusses, arches: 0 to 1 hour.
 Floors: 0 to 1 hour.
 Roof: 0 to 1 hour.
4. WOOD CONSTRUCTION
 The construction in which the exterior wall or bearing
wall, roof and floor wholly or partially of wood
Structural members are entirely or partially made from
wood or other approved combustible material. Fire-
resistance requirements for all elements can range
from 0 to 1 hour.
 Exterior and interior bearing walls shall have, as a
minimum, the following fire-resistance ratings:
 Exterior bearing walls: 2 hours.
 Interior bearing walls: 1 to 2 hours