FIRE PROTECTION

INTRODUCTION

No building material is perfectly fire proof.Every building contain some material (such as
furniture,clothing,eatables etc.) which can either easily catch fire or which are vulnerable to
fire.However,the endeavor of the architect and engineers should be to plan,design and
construct the building in such a way that safety of occupants may be ensured to the maximum
possible extent in the event of the outbreak of fire in the building due to any reason
whatsoever.The technical interpretation of fire safety of building is to convey the fire resistance
of building in terms of hours when subjected to fire of known intensity.It should have structural
time interval so that adequate protection of fire safety may be deemed to cover the following
aspect:

a) Fire prevention and reduction of number of outbreaks of fire

b) Spread of fire ,both internally and externally,
c) Safe exit of any and all occupants in the event of an out-break of fire ,and
d) Fire extinguishing apparatus.

Causes of fire

Most fires are caused by carelessness. Common instances of carelessness

are:i)careless discarding of lighted ends of cigarates, cigars ,matches and tobacco,ii) smoking
in unauthorized places.iii) indifferent maintenance of machinery including overloading and
under or over lubricating of bearing,iv) general indifference to cleanliness,v) incorrect storage of
material,vi) faulty workmanship and inattention to electrical installations (this is particularly
evident by thefires which occur during the monsoon),vii)un-approved equipment and layout,viii)
inattention of person concentrated with inspection and patrol of the premises under their
jurisdiction,and ix) inattention of fire safety regulations,etc.

In case of an outbreak of fire,the danger is from fire, smoke and panic. The provision of
suitable means of escape should be in relation to these dangers and the number of person
affected .The chance of damage due to panic can be reduced; the escapes should be located in
such a way that they remain unobstructed by smoke or fumes. The mean of escapes from fire
should be easily accessible, unobstructed and clearly defined.

FIRE HAZARDS

Fire safety of buildings should be considered from three aspects and protection should
accordingly be provided against the following three types of fire hazards.

a) Possibility of loss or damage to life,refered to as personal hazards

b) Possibility of fire occurring and spreading inside the building itself, refered to as
internal hazards’ and
c) Possibility of fire spreading from an adjoining building or buildings or from across a
street or road,referred to as ‘exposure hazard’.
The consideration of personal hazard is narurally or permanent importance and
requires the provision of liberally design an safe fire proof exits and escapes in all
building and particularly those having more than one storey.

Internal hazard concerns damage or destruction of the building and influences

directly personal hazard. The internal hazard is directly related to fire load which,in
turn,enables the building to be graded when considered along with the duration of
fire.

‘Exposure hazard’ deals with the risk of fire spreading into a building through the
open air from fire in other building,from the stocks of combustible material etc, or
into a division or compartment of a building through the open air from a fire in other
division or ompartment of the same building.

A small building containing highly inflamamable material may constitute a high

internal hazard; a large building containing quantities of combustile material,for
example, a godown,would also be descbribed as high internal hazards even though
tha actual outbreaks are likely to be few,because when a fire does occur,the
destruction of contents and structural damage might be
considerable.Theatres,Cinemas and other places of public assembly,even though
their combustile contents may be low,are considered to present a high internal
hazard primarity because of the large number of people and the extent of personal
hazard,involved.On the other hand,from stand point of high combustile
content,would constitute low personal hazard because of few people likely to be in
such a building.

FIRE LOAD

Fire load is the amount of heat in Kilocalories (k cal) which is liberated per
squre meter of floor area of any compartment by the combustion of the contents of
the building and any combustible part of the building itself.This amount of heat is
used as the basis of grading of occupancies.

The fire load is determined by multiplying the weight of all combustible materials
by their calorific value,and dividing the floor area under consideration.For example,if
a section of a building, having an area of 80 sq.meter has 1200 kg of combustible
material having a calorific value of 4000 lcal/kg,

Fire load = 1200 x 400/80 =60000 kcal /m2

Indian standard ( IS:1641-1960) grdes the fire loads into the following three classes:

a) Low fire load: not exceeding 27500 kcal/m2 and as applying generallt to
domestic buildings,hotels and offices and similar buildings.
b) Moderate fire load: exceeding 27500 kcal/m2 but not exceeding 550000 kcal /m2
applying generally to trading establishment and factories.
c) High fire load: where the value exceed 1100000 kcal /m2 applying to fire load
grading to godowns and similar structures.

Fire load of any building is classes as of normal or of abnormal fire risk

depending on susceptibility of the occupancy of the building to fire.The
occupancy of the building may consist of material in store or manufacturing
process.

Different material having same weight and the same calorific value may
present different hazards on account of their other properties, such as rate of
ignition ,speed of burning and liberation iof dangerous fumes.Materials are
classified for purpose of assessing fire grading under the heading non-
Hazardous (NH),Hazardous (H) and extra Hazardous (EH) based on the
following charectoristics:i) explosive tendencies,ii) high inflammability,iii)liability to
intensify a fire.iv) generation of intense heat when burning,v)liability to extend the
fire zone,vi) difficulty to extinguish,and vii) spontaneous combustion tendencies.

Grading of occupancies by fire load

Based on fire load,occupancies are graded into the following three

classes:

1. Occupancies of low fire load

Under this fall those occupancies whose the fire load does not exceed an
average of 275000 kcal/m2 of net floor area of any compartment,nor an
average of 550000 kcal/m2 on limited isolated areas.Domestic buildings,
hotels,boarding houses, restaurents,schools,hospitals,temples.mosques,
commercial offices come under this category.Also the the factories and
workshops in which material and process are of a recognized non-
hazardous nature (such as an engineering workshop ) come under this.

2. Occupancies of moderate fire load

Under this fall those occupancies whose the fire load exceeds an
average of 275000 kcal/m2 of net floor area of any compartment but does
not exceed an average of 550000kcal/m2 nor on average of 1100000
kcal.m2 on limited isolated areas.Examples of occupancies that fall under
this category are retail shops, emporium,bazaars,factories and workshops
generally.

3. Occupancies of high fire load

Under this fall those occupancies whose the fire load exceeds an
average of 550000 kcal/m2 of net floor area of any compartment but does not
exceed an average of 1100000 kcal/m2 of net floor area,nor an average of
2200000kcal/m2 on limited isolated areas.Examples of occupancies that
 under this category are godowns and similar building used for bulk storage of
non-hazardous materials and goods.

GRADING OF STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS

Structural elements of buildings are graded,for fire resistance, by the time for
which they resist a standard fire of given time temperature grading.The time-temprature grading
is based on observation in actual fires.The relationship between the actual fire expressed as
fire load and the standard fire is established by burning down weights of combustible material
corresponding to different classes of fire loads,so as to match the time temperature grading of
standard fire. From the result it follows that the different grades of fire resisting structural
elements will resist the corresponding fire loads shown against them in table

Thus a structural elements classified as of grade 4 will successfully withstand the standard fire
severity and comply with other condition for an hour.If that structural element is incorporated ina
building of which the fire load gives to a fire, equipement in severity to one hour severity in the
test,then the structural element should resist the building fire without failure.

Classification of Structural element

Grade Time- in- hours Fire load & class of fire which the structural
No. (min,resistance against element can withstand
standard fire)
Fire load in k cal/m2 Class of fire
1 6 1100000 and over Very high
2 4 500000 to 1100000 High
3 2 275000 to 500000 Medium
4 1 Less than 275000 Low
5 ½ Very low

GRADING OF BUILDINGS ACCORDING TO FIRE RESISTANCE

Structural precaution aid in giving a building the necessary resistance to a

complete burn and restrict any spread of fire and also minimize the personal hazard.In grading
building according to the fire resistance and structural precaution provided,it has been assumed
that no assistance will be forthcoming from municipal fire brigade and that no fire fighting
apparatus has been provided or attached to building.National Building Code of India (SP:7-
1970)divides building into the following four types according to the fire load the building is
designed to resist:

i) Type 1 construction . All structural components have 4- hours fire resistance

ii) Type 2 construction All structural components have 3- hours fire resistance
iii) Type 3 construction All structural components have 2- hours fire resistance
iv) Type 4 construction All structural components have 1- hours fire resistance

Experience shows that with fire fighting equipment installed in the premises, the
duration of fire in buildings having a fire load between 500000 to 1100000
kcal/m2 is usually less than 3 hours. Hence type 1 construction prescribed for
this class of buildings generally ensures sufficient protection.However,in
buildings covered under type1,proper ventilation and provision for escape of hot
gases should be made. Also when the firefighting equipment or the services of a
fire brigade are available in the premises, the design should provide for
immediate access from several positions.
The most satisfactory condition of a building is when it is constructed to
resist a complete burn out of combustible contents, without failure or collapse.

CHARECTORISTICS OF FIRE RESISTING MATERIALS

An ideal fire resisting material should posses the following characteristics
 The material should not disintegrate under the effect of great heat.
 The expansion of the material due to heat should not be such that it leads to
instability of the structure of which it forms a part.
 The contraction of the material due to sudden cooling with water(during fire
extenuation process)after it has heated to a high temperature should not be
rapid.

In relation to fire, building materials can be divide into two types’)non-

combustible materials, and ii) combustible materials. on combustible
materials are those which if decomposed by heat will do so with
negligible evolution of heat(i.e.endothermically)or if they oxidize, do so
with negligible evolution of heat. These materials do not contribute to the
growth or spread of fire, but are damaged and decomposed when high
temp. are reached. Examples of non-combustible materials are: stones
and bricks, concrete,clay products,metal,glass,etc.Combustible material
are those which, during fire, combine exothermically with oxygen,
resulting in evolution of lot of heat and giving rise to flame or glow. Such
material burn and also contribute to the growth of fire. Examples of these
materials are: wood and wood products,fibre board, straw board etc.

FIRE –RESISTANCE PROPERTIES OF COMMON BUILDING

1. STONE

Stone is a non-combustible building material & also bad conductor of

heat & does not contribute to the spread of fire.However,it is a bad fire-
resisting material since it is liable to disintegrate into small pieces when
heated & suddenly cooled, giving rise to failure of structure .Granite ,on
exposure to serve heat, explodes and disintegrates. Lime stone is the
word, since it is easily crumbled even under ordinary fire. Sand stone of
compact composition(fine grained )can however stand the exposure to
moderate fire without series cracks. In general ,the use of stone in a fire-
resisting construction should be restricted to a minimum.
 2. BRICKS

Brick is a poor conductor of heat. First class brick molded from good clay can
stand exposure to fire for a considerable length of time,upto temperature of
about 1200 degree C.Brick masonry construction, with good mortar and
better workmanship, is the most suitable for safeguarding the structure
against fire hazards.

3. CONCRETE

The behavior of concrete during exposure to heat varies with the nature of
coarse aggregate and its density, & quality of cement. It also depends upon
the position of steel in concrete. Aggregate expand on heating while ordinary
cement shrinks on heating. These two opposite actions may lead to spilling of
the concrete surface. Aggregate obtained from igneous rocks containing
higher calcareous content, tend to crack more while the aggregate like
foamed slag, cinder and bricks are better. The crack foamed in the concrete
generally extend to the depth of about 25mm.Hence reinforcement concrete
fire-resistant construction should have greater cover. In general, concrete
much offers a much higher resistance to fire than any other building material.
Reinforced concrete structures can withstand fire lasting for several hours
with a temp. of 1000deg.C.without serious damage.

4. STEEL

Though steel is non-combustible ,it has very low fire resistance, since it is
good conductor of heat. During fire, it gets heated very soon, its modulus of
elasticity reduces and it loses its tensile strength rapidly. It is found that yield
stress of mild steel at 600 deg.C is about ½ of its value normal temp.Hence
unprotected steel beam sags and unprotected column or struts buckle,
resulting in the collapse of structure. If the surface paint on these steel
components is not fire resistant structure, it is essential to protect structural
steel members with some coverings of insulating materials like brick, terra-
cotta , concrete etc.Fixing of steel in plate or sheet form to the structural steel
work is also effective in resisting the passage of flame. Such construction is
widely used in making fire-resisting doors and windows

5. GALSS

Glass is poor conductor of heat, and its thermal expansion is also less. When
it is heated and then suddenly cooled,cracksare formed. These cracks can be
minimized if glass is reinforced with steel wire neitting.Thus,reinforced glass is more
fire resistant ,and can resist variations in temp.without services cracks. Reinforced
glass has higher meting point. Even if cracks are formed, the embedded wire hold
 the cracked portion in position. Reinforced glass is therefore commonly used
for resisting doors, windows, sky-lights,etc.

6. TIMBER

Timber has unique property of self installation & slow buring & offers
considerable resistance to fire.When subjected to the fire,timber first gets
charred to certain depth & there after,this charred layer serves as insulation
to check the spread of fire to the inner portion.Additional fire resistance is
achieved through impregnation of timber with large quantities of fire –
retarding chemicals.The commonly used chemical for purpose are
ammonium phosphate & sulphate ,borax & boric acid,zinc chloride etc.This
treatment retards increase in temp. during fire; decreases rate of flame
spread & enables easy fire control.Usually 32 to 48 kg of chemical per cubic
meter of wood are used for moderate protection & 80 to 96 kg per cubic
meter for high protection.During the recent year, a number of fire –resistant
Paints of asbestos, magnesium sulphate,ferrous-oxide etc.have been found
to be very much effective.

7. ASBESTOS

Asbestos is a fibrous mineral which is combined with Portland cement to form

a material having great fire resistive value.Asbestos cement products are
largley used for construction of fire-resistive partitions,roofs etc.On account of
its low co-efficient of expansion & property of incombustibility,the strucrural
members to cracking swelling or disintegration when exposed to fire.

8. PLASTER or MORTAR
Plaster or Mortar is incombustible & as such suitable choice of the type of
mortar,the wall or ceilings of a building,can be made better fire resistant.
Cement mortar is better than lime mortar as the later is liable to calcine.The
resistance of plaster to fire hazars can be increased by using it in thicker
layers or reinforcing plaster with metal laths,Gypsum plaster when applie over
structural member like steel columns etc,makes the later have good fire
resistive qualities.

FIRE ALARMS

Fire alarms are installed to give an alarm and to call for assistance in event of
fire. The fire alarms give enough time to the occupants to reach to a safe place. Fire
alarms can be either manual or automatic.
1. Manual alarms: -- These are of hand bell type or similar other sounding device,
which can emit distinctive sound even struck. These are sounded by watchmen and
the occupants are thereby warned to have safe exit in shortest possible time.
Manually operated alarms shall be provided near all main exits and in the natural
path of escape from fire, at readily accessible points which are likely to be
obstructed.
2. Automatic alarms: - These alarms start sounding automatically in the event of fire. It
is used in large industrial buildings which may remain unoccupied during night. The
automatic fire alarm sends alarms to the nearest control point. The system can also
perform the function of sending message to the nearest fire brigade station.

FIRE EXTINGUISHING EQUIPMENTS

Each building should have suitable fire extinguishing arrangements, depending

upon the importance of the building and the associated hazards. Following are useful
equipment required for fire extinction.

1) Manual Fire Extinguishing Equipment

These devices are useful for extinguishing fire as soon as it starts. They are not so
useful when once the fire has spread. Under this category comes the portable
extinguishers of carbon –dioxide type or foam generation type etc.The discharge from a
portable fire extinguisher basis only for a short duration of 20 to 120 seconds. In some
cases, especially in small buildings buckets of water, sand and asbestos blanket may
be kept ready at all time to extinguish fire. These buckets are installed at convenient
locations for taking care of fire of minor size.

2) FIRE HYDRANTS

These fire hydrants are provided on a ring main of 150mm dia .in the ground around
the building periphery. The ring main gets water from underground tank with
pressure, so that available pressure at each hydrant is of the order of about 3.5 to 4
kg/cm2

3) WET RISER SYSTEM

The system consists of providing 100 to 150mm dia.vertical G.I. pipes (risers) at
suitable locations in the building. A fire pump is used to feed water from underground
tank to these pipes ,to ensure a pressure of 3kg/cm2 at uppermost outlet.

4 ) AUTOMATIC SPRINKLER SYSTEM

This arrangement is adopted for important structure like textile,mills,paper

mills,etc.The system consist of a net work of pipes 20mm dia.fixed to the ceiling of the
room. These pipes are sp-aced at 3m centre to centre. Heat actuated sprinkler heats are
fixed to these pipes at regular interval. The pipes get supply from a header. Each
sprinkler head provided with fusible plug. In the event of fire ,the fusible plug in the
 sprinkler nearest to the wire melts due to rise of temp.,& water gushes out of the
sprinkler head. The fire is thus brought under control in a short period.

GENERAL FIRE SAFETY REQUIREMENT FOR BUILDINGS

In order that the fire hazard (i.e. personal hazard, internal hazard & exposures
hazards) are minimized, IS:1641-1960 recommends that the buildings shall conform to the
following general requirements:

1. All buildings & particularly buildings having more than one storey shall be provided
with liberally designed & safe fire proof exits or escapes..
2. The exits shall be so placed that they are always immediately accessible and each is
capable of talking all the persons on that floor as alternative escape routes may be
rendered unusable and unsafe to due to fire.
3. Escape routes shall be well-ventilated as persons using the escapes are likely to be
overcome by smoke and /or fumes which may enter from the fire.
4. Fire-proof doors shall conform rigidly to the fire safety requirements
5. Where fire-resisting door are employed as cuts-offs or fire breaks, they shall be
maintained in good working order so that they may be readily opened to allow quick
escape of persons trapped in that section of the building, and also, when necessary,
prompt rescue work can be expeditiously carried out.
6. Electrical & /or mechanical lifts, while reliable under normal condition may not always
be relied on for escape purposes in the event of a fire, as the electrical supply to the
building itself may be cut-off or otherwise interrupted, or those relying on mechanical
drive may not have the driving powder available.
7. Lift shafts & stairways invariably serve as flues or tunnels thus increasing the fire by
increased draught & their design shall be such as to reduce or avoid this possibility &
consequent spread of fire.
8. False ceiling either for sound effects or air-conditioning or other similar purpose shall
be so constructed as to prevent either total or early collapse in the event of fire so
that persons underneath are not fatally trapped before they have the time to reach
the exist; this shall apply to cinemas, and other public or private buildings where
many people congregate.
9. To a lesser extent, the provisions of clause (8) above shall apply to single –storey
buildings which may be used for residence or an equivalent occupancy. Whatever be
class or purpose of the building, the design & construction shall embody the fire
retardant features for ceiling and/or roofs
10. Floor. Floors. are required to withstand the effects of fire for the full period stated for
the particular grading. The design & construction of floors shall be of such a standard
that shall obviate any replacement, partial or otherwise, because experience shows
that certain types of construction stand up satisfactorily against collapse & suffer
which may first be considered as negligible damage, but in practice later involves
complete stripping down & either total or major replacement .This consideration shall
also be applied to other elements of structure where necessary.
11. Roof. Roof for the various fire-grades of the buildings shall be designed &
constructed to withstand the effect of fire for the maximum period for the particular
grading, and this requires concrete or equivalent construction. It
is,however,important that maximum endurance is provided for as stated in para.9
12. Basement .Where basement are necessary for a building and where such
basements are used for storage, provision shall be made for escape of any heat
arresting due to fire & for liberating and smoke which may be caused. It is essential
that fire resistance of the basement shall conform to the highest order & all columns
for supporting the upper structure shall have a grading not less than down in types 1
to3
13. Smoke extraction from basements. The following requirements shall be provided for
smoke extraction:
a) Unobstructed smoke extracts having direct communication with the open air shall
be provided in or adjoining the external walls and in position easily accessible for
firemen in an emergency.
b) The area of smoke extracts shall be distributed, as far as possible, around the
perimeter to encourage flow of smoke & gases where it is impracticable to provid
a few large extracts, for example, not less than 3 m2 area , a number of small
extracts having the same gross area shall be provided.
c) Covers to the smoke extracts shall, where practicable, be provided in the stall
board & or pavement lights at pavement level, and may constructed of light cast
iron frame or other construction which may be readily broken by fire-men in
emergency. The covers shall be suitably marked.