🔗 1.
2 Basic Set Operations
🔗 1.2.1 Definitions
🔗 Definition 1.2.1. Intersection. Let A and B be sets. The intersection of A
and B (denoted by A ∩ B) is the set of all elements that are in both A and B.
That is, A ∩ B = {x : x ∈ A and x ∈ B}.
🔗 Example 1.2.2. Some Intersections.
Let A = {1, 3, 8} and B = {−9, 22, 3}. Then A ∩ B = {3}.
Solving a system of simultaneous equations such as x + y = 7 and
x − y = 3 can be viewed as an intersection. Let
A = {(x, y) : x + y = 7, x, y ∈ R} and
B = {(x, y) : x − y = 3, x, y ∈ R}. These two sets are lines in the plane
and their intersection, A ∩ B = {(5, 2)}, is the solution to the system.
Z ∩ Q = Z .
If A = {3, 5, 9} and B = {−5, 8}, then A ∩ B = ∅.
🔗 Definition 1.2.3. Disjoint Sets. Two sets are disjoint if they have no
elements in common. That is, A and B are disjoint if A ∩ B = ∅.
🔗 Definition 1.2.4. Union. Let A and B be sets. The union of A and B
(denoted by A ∪ B) is the set of all elements that are in A or in B or in both A
and B. That is, A ∪ B = {x : x ∈ A or x ∈ B}.
🔗 It is important to note in the set-builder notation for A ∪ B, the word “or” is
used in the inclusive sense; it includes the case where x is in both A and B.
🔗 Example 1.2.5. Some Unions.
If A = {2, 5, 8} and B = {7, 5, 22}, then A ∪ B = {2, 5, 8, 7, 22}.
Z ∪ Q = Q.
A ∪ ∅ = A for any set A.
🔗 Frequently, when doing mathematics, we need to establish a universe or set of
elements under discussion. For example, the set A = {x : 81x − 16 = 0}
4
contains different elements depending on what kinds of numbers we allow
ourselves to use in solving the equation 81x − 16 = 0. This set of numbers
4
would be our universe. For example, if the universe is the integers, then A is
empty. If our universe is the rational numbers, then A is {2/3, −2/3} and if the
universe is the complex numbers, then A is {2/3, −2/3, 2i/3, −2i/3}.
🔗 Definition 1.2.6. Universe. The universe, or universal set, is the set of all
elements under discussion for possible membership in a set. We normally
reserve the letter U for a universe in general discussions.
🔗 1.2.2 Set Operations and their Venn Diagrams
🔗 When working with sets, as in other branches of mathematics, it is often quite
useful to be able to draw a picture or diagram of the situation under
consideration. A diagram of a set is called a Venn diagram. The universal set U is
represented by the interior of a rectangle and the sets by disks inside the
rectangle.
🔗 Example 1.2.7. Venn Diagram Examples. A ∩ B is illustrated in
Figure 1.2.8 by shading the appropriate region.
Figure 1.2.8. Venn Diagram for the Intersection of Two Sets
🔗 The union A ∪ B is illustrated in Figure 1.2.9.
Figure 1.2.9. Venn Diagram for the Union A ∪ B
🔗 In a Venn diagram, the region representing A ∩ B does not appear empty;
however, in some instances it will represent the empty set. The same is true for
any other region in a Venn diagram.
🔗 Definition 1.2.10. Complement of a set. Let A and B be sets. The
complement of A relative to B (notation B − A) is the set of elements that are
in B and not in A. That is, B − A = {x : x ∈ B and x ∉ A}. If U is the
universal set, then U − A is denoted by A and is called simply the
c
complement of A. A = {x ∈ U : x ∉ A}.
c
🔗 Figure 1.2.11. Venn Diagram for B − A
🔗 Example 1.2.12. Some Complements.
a. Let U ..., 10} and A = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}. Then
= {1, 2, 3,
U − A = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9} and A − U = ∅.
b. If U = R, then the complement of the set of rational numbers is the set
of irrational numbers.
c. U
c
= ∅ and ∅
c
= U .
d. The Venn diagram of B − A is represented in Figure 1.2.11.
e. The Venn diagram of A is represented in Figure 1.2.13.
c
f. If B ⊆ A, then the Venn diagram of A − B is as shown in Figure 1.2.14.
g. In the universe of integers, the set of even integers,
{… , −4, −2, 0, 2, 4, …}, has the set of odd integers as its complement.
Figure 1.2.13. Venn Diagram for A c
Figure 1.2.14. Venn Diagram for A − B when B is a subset of A
🔗 Definition 1.2.15. Symmetric Difference. Let A and B be sets. The
symmetric difference of A and B (denoted by A ⊕ B) is the set of all elements
that are in A and B but not in both. That is, A ⊕ B = (A ∪ B) − (A ∩ B).
🔗 Example 1.2.16. Some Symmetric Differences.
a. Let A = {1, 3, 8} and B = {2, 4, 8}. Then A ⊕ B = {1, 2, 3, 4}.
b. A ⊕ ∅ = A and A ⊕ A = ∅ for any set A.
c. R ⊕ Q is the set of irrational numbers.
d. The Venn diagram of A ⊕ B is represented in Figure 1.2.17.
Figure 1.2.17. Venn Diagram for the symmetric difference A ⊕ B
Why Venn?
🔗 1.2.3 SageMath Note: Sets
Venn diagrams are named after the logician
John Venn, who introduced them in a paper in
🔗 To work with sets in Sage, a set is an expression of the form Set(list). By
1880. In his paper, he acknowledged that they
wrapping a list with Set( ) , the order of elements appearing in the list and
were not new. In fact he referred to them as
their duplication are ignored. For example, L1 and L2 are two different lists, but
notice how as sets they are considered equal:
1
2
L1=[3,6,9,0,3]
L2=[9,6,3,0,9]
3 [L1==L2, Set(L1)==Set(L2) ]
Evaluate (Sage)
🔗 The standard set operations are all methods and/or functions that can act on
Sage sets. You need to evaluate the following cell to use the subsequent cell.
1
2
A=Set(srange(5,50,5))
B=Set(srange(6,50,6))
3 [A,B]
Evaluate (Sage)
🔗 We can test membership, asking whether 10 is in each of the sets:
1 [10 in A, 10 in B]
Evaluate (Sage)
🔗 The ampersand is used for the intersection of sets. Change it to the vertical bar,
|, for union.
1 A & B
Evaluate (Sage)
🔗 Symmetric difference and set complement are defined as “methods” in Sage.
Here is how to compute the symmetric difference of A with B, followed by their
differences.
1 [A.symmetric_difference(B),[Link](B),[Link](A)]
Evaluate (Sage)
🔗 1.2.4 Exercises
🔗 1. Let A = {0, 2, 3}, B = {2, 3}, C = {1, 5, 9} , and let the universal set be
. Determine:
U = {0, 1, 2, . . . , 9}
a. A ∩ B b. A ∪ B c. B ∪ A
d. A ∪ C e. A − B f. B − A
g. A
c
h. C
c
i. A ∩ C
j. A ⊕ B
Answer.
🔗 2. Let A, B, and C be as in Exercise 1, let D = {3, 2}, and let E = {2, 3, 2} .
Determine which of the following are true. Give reasons for your decisions.
a. A = B b. B = C
c. B = D d. E = D
e. A ∩ B = B ∩ A f. A ∪ B = B ∪ A
g. A − B = B − A h. A ⊕ B = B ⊕ A
🔗 3. Let U = {1, 2, 3, . . . , 9} . Give examples of sets A, B, and C for which:
a. A ∩ (B ∩ C) = (A ∩ B) ∩ C b. A ∩ (B ∪ C) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C)
c. (A ∪ B)
c c
= A
c
∩ B d. A ∪ A
c
= U
e. A ⊆ A ∪ B f. A ∩ B ⊆ A
Answer.
🔗 4. Let U = {1, 2, 3, . . . , 9} . Give examples to illustrate the following facts:
a. If A ⊆ B and B ⊆ C , then A ⊆ C .
b. There are sets A and B such that A − B ≠ B − A
c. If U = A ∪ B and A ∩ B = ∅, it always follows that A = U − B .
🔗 5. What can you say about A if U ,
= {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} B = {2, 3} , and (separately)
a. A ∪ B = {1, 2, 3, 4}
b. A ∩ B = {2}
c. A ⊕ B = {3, 4, 5}
Answer.
🔗 6. Suppose that U is an infinite universal set, and A and B are infinite subsets
of U . Answer the following questions with a brief explanation.
🔗 a. Must A be finite?
c
b. Must A ∪ B be infinite?
c. Must A ∩ B be infinite?
🔗 7. Given that U = all students at a university, D = day students, M =
mathematics majors, and G = graduate students. Draw Venn diagrams
illustrating this situation and shade in the following sets:
🔗 a. evening students b. undergraduate mathematics
majors
c. non-math graduate d. non-math undergraduate
students students
Answer.
🔗 8. Let the sets D, M , G, and U be as in exercise 7. Let |U | = 16, 000,
,
|D| = 9, 000 |M | = 300 , and |G| = 1, 000. Also assume that the number of
day students who are mathematics majors is 250, 50 of whom are graduate
students, that there are 95 graduate mathematics majors, and that the total
number of day graduate students is 700. Determine the number of students
who are:
a. evening students b. nonmathematics majors
c. undergraduates (day or d. day graduate nonmathematics
evening) majors
e. evening graduate students f. evening graduate mathematics
majors
g. evening undergraduate
nonmathematics majors
