DBM20083-

DISCRETE
C h a p t e
MATHEMATICS r 4
Chapter 4: SETS, RELATIONS
AND FUNCTIONS
4.1 Derive sets and set operations
4.1.1 Explain with examples, the basic
terminology of functions, relations and sets
4.1.2 Define sets
4.1.3 Use set notation and operation on sets:
4.1.3a Union
4.1.3b Intersection
4.1.3c Disjoint
4.1.3d Difference
4.1.3e Complement
Chapter 4: SETS, RELATIONS
AND FUNCTIONS
4.1.4 Conduct Venn diagram to represent set
operations
4.1.5 Identify set properties based on De
Morgan's Law
4.1.6 Explain relations
4.1.7 Identify the properties of relations in
directed graph
4.1.8 Explain the equivalent relation:
4.1.8a Reflexive
4.1.8b Symmetriic
4.1.8c Transitive
BASIC TERMINOLOGY OF SETS AND
STANDARD NOTATION IN SETS
• A set is an unordered collection • The statement “𝒑 is an element
of objects. of 𝑨”or equivalently “𝒑 belongs
• The objectin a set are called the to 𝑨" is written 𝒑 ∈ 𝑨.
elements or members of the set. • • The statement “𝒑 is not an
• Capital letters like 𝑨 , 𝑩 , 𝑿 , 𝒀 , …… element of 𝑨” that is the negation
are used to denote sets and of 𝒑 ∈ 𝑨 is written 𝒑 ∉ 𝑨.
lowercase letters 𝒂, 𝒃, 𝒙, 𝒚, …… are
used to denote elements of sets.
BASIC TERMINOLOGY OF SETS AND
STANDARD NOTATION IN SETS
EQUAL SETS Example:
• If and only if their number of
elements and the member of A = {5,6,7},
elements are exactly same. B = {7,5,6},
• The order of elements and the C = {5,5,6,6,7,7}
repetition of elements does not have
any relevance here. Here, all the three sets, set A, set B and
set C are equal.
SPECIAL SYMBOLS FOR SETS
𝐍 = the set of positive integers : 1, 2, 3, ….
𝐙 = the set of integers : ….., -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, …..
𝐐 = the set of rational numbers
𝐑 = the set of real numbers
𝐂 = the set of complex numbers
EXAMPLE
List the members of these sets.
a) {𝑥 | 𝑎 𝑖𝑠 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑥² = 1 }
b) {𝑥 | 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 12 }
c) {𝑥 | 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 < 100}
d) {𝑥 | 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑥² = 2}

Solution:
a) {−1 , 1}
b) {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11}
c) {0, 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81}
d) Ø (empty set which means no element)
Example
Determine whether each of these pairs of sets are equal.
a) {1, 3, 3, 3, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5} , {5, 3, 1 }
b) {{1} , {1, {1}}

Solution:
a) Yes
b) No
Exercise A
• List the elements of the following sets;

𝑁 = {1, 2, 3…} .
here

a) 𝐴 ={ 𝑥 𝑥∈ 𝑁 𝑥 , 3 < 𝑥 < 10 }
b) 𝐵 = {𝑥 𝑥∈ 𝑁 𝑥 , 𝑖 𝑠 𝑒𝑣 𝑒𝑛, 𝑥 < 15 }
c) 𝐶 = {𝑥 𝑥∈ 𝑁 𝑥 , 4 + 𝑥 = 7}

2. Given the universal set 𝑈 = {𝑥 𝑥15 ≤ 𝑥 ≤

𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟},
26, 𝑥

𝑀 = {𝑥 ∶ 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟} ;
𝑁 = {𝑥 ∶ 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 3} ;
𝑂 = {𝑥: 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟}
Exercise A cont...
3. List the element of the following sets:
a) {x: x ∈ N, 5 < x < 12}, where N = {1, 2,
3…}
b) {x: x ∈ N, x is even, x < 15}, where N = {1,
2, 3…}
c) {x: x ∈ N , 10 < x< 35, x with sum of digits
less than 6} where N = {1, 2, 3…}

4. Determine whether each pair of sets is

equal
a) {1, 2, 2, 4} , {1, 2, 4}
b) {1, 1, 3} , {3, 3, 1}
c) {𝑥 | 𝑥² + 𝑥 = 2} , {1, -1}
 VENN DIAGRAM,UNIVERSAL
SET,EMPTY SET & SUBSETS
• In Venn Diagram,the universal set Example of Venn diagram:
U which contains all the objects
underthe consideration represented
by a rectangle.
• Inside this rectangle, circles or other
geometrical figures are used to
represent sets. Sometimes points The set of vowels,
are used to represent the particular V in the English
elements of the set. alphabet.
 VENN DIAGRAM,UNIVERSAL
SET,EMPTY SET & SUBSETS
• The set 𝑨 is said to be a subset • If 𝑨 is not a subset of 𝑩 , if at least
of 𝑩 if and only if every element one element of 𝑨 does not belong to
of 𝑨 is also an element of 𝑩. We use 𝑩, we write 𝑨 ⊈ 𝑩 or 𝑩 ⊉ 𝑨.
the notation 𝑨 ⊆ 𝑩 or 𝑩 ⊇ 𝑨 to • Empty set is a special set that has no
indicate that 𝑨 is a subset of the elements. Notation: Ø or { }.
set 𝑩.
EXAMPLE
(a) Suppose that 𝐴 = 2, 4, 6 , 𝐵 = 2, 6 , 𝐶 = 4, 6 and 𝐷 = 4, 6, 8 .
Determine which of these sets are subsets of which other of

(b) Draw a Venn diagram to illustrate the relationship 𝐵 ⊆ 𝐴

these sets.

by using the question above.

Solution:
a) B ⊆ A; C ⊆ D
b)
EXAMPLE
Determine whether each of these statements is true or false.
a) 0 ∈ Ø
b) Ø ∈ {0}
c) 𝑥 ∈ {𝑥}
d) {𝑥} ⊆ {𝑥}

Solution:
a) False
b) False
c) True
d) True
Exercise B
Ø , 𝐴 = {1}, 𝐵 = {1, 3}, 𝐶 = {1, 5, 9},
• Consider the following sets :

𝐷 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, 𝐸 = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9},

𝑈 = {1, 2, …… , 8, 9}
Insert the correct symbol ⊆ or ⊄ between each pair

a) Ø , 𝐴 b) 𝐴 , 𝐵 c) 𝐵 , 𝐶
of set.

e) 𝐶 , 𝐷 f) 𝐶 , 𝐸 g) 𝐷 , 𝐸
d) B , E
h) D , U

i. 𝐴 ⊆ 𝐵 and 𝐵 ⊆ 𝐶
2. Use a Venn Diagram to illustrate the relationship

ii. 𝐴 ⊆ 𝐷 and D⊆ 𝑈
 OPERATION ON SETS
UNION OF THE SETS A AND B INTERSECTION OF THE SETS A
• Denoted by 𝑨 ∪ 𝑩 AND B
• Definition: the set that contains • Denoted by 𝑨 ∩ 𝑩
those elements that are either in 𝑨 • Definition: containing those
or in 𝑩, or in both. elements in both 𝑨 and 𝑩.
 OPERATION ON SETS

DISJOINT OF TWO SETS

• Two sets are called disjoint if their intersection is the empty set.
• Example:
𝑨 = {𝟏, 𝟑, 𝟓, 𝟕. 𝟗} and 𝑩 = {𝟐, 𝟒, 𝟔, 𝟖, 𝟏𝟎}. Because 𝑨 ∩ 𝑩 = Ø, 𝑨 and 𝑩 are
disjoint.
 OPERATION ON SETS
DIFFERENCE OF A AND B COMPLEMENT OF SET A
• Denoted by 𝑨 − 𝑩 or 𝑨\𝑩 • Denoted by 𝑨c or 𝑨 or 𝑨′.
• Definition: the set containing those • Definition: the complement of 𝑨
elements that are in 𝑨 but not in 𝑩. with respect to 𝑼 (universal set).
SET IDENTITIES
EXAMPLE
1. Let 𝐴 = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 𝐵 = 0, 3, 6 . Find:
a) 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵
b) 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵
c) 𝐴 − 𝐵
d) 𝐵 \ 𝐴

combinations of sets 𝐴 and 𝐵.

2. Draw the Venn Diagram for each of these

a) 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵c

b) (𝐵 \ 𝐴)c
Solution
1.
a) {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 }
b) {3}
c) {1, 2, 4, 5}
d) {0, 6}

2.a) b)
EXAMPLE
List the members of these sets.
a) {𝑥 | 𝑎 𝑖𝑠 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑥² = 1}
b) {𝑥 | 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 12}
c) {𝑥 | 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 <
100}
d) {𝑥 | 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑥² = 2}

Solution:
a) {−1 , 1}
b) {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11}
c) {0, 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81}
d) Ø (empty set which means no element)
Exercise C
1. Given 𝐴 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} , 𝐵 = {4, 5, 6, 7} , 𝐶 = {5, 6,
7, 8, 9} , 𝐷 = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9} , 𝐸 = {2, 4, 6, 8} , 𝐹 = {1, 5,
9}.

a) 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 e) 𝐶 ∪ 𝐹
Find:

b) 𝐵 ∩ 𝐷 f) 𝐸 − 𝐵
c) 𝐷 ∩ 𝐸 g) 𝐷\𝐴

2. Let 𝐴 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑, 𝑒} and 𝐵 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑, 𝑒, 𝑓, 𝑔,

d)𝐹\𝐴

a) 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵
ℎ}. Find :

b) 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵
c) 𝐴 − 𝐵
Exercise C cont...
3. The universal set,
U = {x: 10 < x < 35, x is an integer},
F = {x: x is a prime number},
G = {x: x is a multiple of 3}
H = {x: x < 20}.

a) List all the elements of set F, G and H.

b) Draw the Venn diagram to represent all elements
of F ∪ G ∪ H in the universal set.
c) Find n(F ∩ H)
 RELATIONS

BINARY RELATION
• Definition: relationships between the elements of two sets.
• A binary relation from 𝐴 to 𝐵 is a set 𝑅 of ordered pairs where the first
element of each ordered pairs comes from 𝐴 and the second elements come
from 𝐵.
 IMPORTANT

Notation form:
*a 𝑹 b (a is R-related to b)
*a 𝑹 b (a is not R-related to b)
Domain: all first elements of the ordered pairs which belong to 𝑹
Range: the set of second elements in 𝑹
EXAMPLE
Let A=(1,2,3) and B=(x,y,z) and let R={(1,y),(1,z),
(3,y)}.Define the relation given in notation form.
State the domain and range.

Solution:
1 𝑹 y, 1 𝑹 z, 3 𝑹 y
1 𝑹 x, 2 𝑹 x, 2 𝑹 y
2 𝑹 z, 3 𝑹 x, 3 𝑹 z

Domain={1,3}
Range={y,z}
 RELATION REPRESENTATION
1. GRAPHICALLY/ ARROW DIAGRAM
Example:
R= {(1, 1), (2, 4), (3, 9), (4, 16), (5, 25)}

1
 RELATION REPRESENTATION
2. DIGRAPH (DIRECTED GRAPH) Example:
• It consists of set ‘V’ of vertices and R= {(1,2), (1,3), (1,4), (2,3), (2,4), (3,4)}
with the edges ‘E’. Here E is
represented by ordered pair of Digraph:
Vertices.
• In the edge (a, b), a is the initial
vertex and b is the final vertex.
• If edge is (a, a) then this is regarded
as loop.
 RELATION REPRESENTATION

Example:
3. MATRICES Suppose that A = {1,2,3} and B = {1,2}.
• The relation R is represented by the R= {(2, 1), (3,1), (3,2)}
matrix 𝑀𝑅 = [𝑚ᵢj ] . In matrix form;
• The matrix representing R has a 1 as 𝑴ʀ =

[
00
its (i,j) entry when 𝑎𝑖 is related to 𝑏j 1𝟎
and a 0 if 𝑎𝑖 is not related to 𝑏j 𝟏1
Exercise D
1. What are the ordered pairs in the relation R
represented by the directed graph shown below?

2. Draw a directed graph (Digraph) for the relation

a) R = { (1,1), (1,3), (2,1), (2,3), (2,4), (3,1), (3,2),
(4,1)} on the set {1, 2, 3, 4}
b) R = { (a,b), (a,a), (b,b), (b,c), (c,c), (c,b), (c,a)} on
the set {a, b, c}
Exercise D cont...
3. List and display all the relation graphically the
ordered pairs in the relation R from A = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4}
to B = {0, 1, 2, 3} where (a, b) ∈ R if and only if

a) a = b
b) a + b = 4
c) a > b
d) a divides b (a | b) (*it means b / a)

State the domain and range for all the questions

above.
THE PROPERTIES OF RELATIONS IN
DIRECTED GRAPH
• A relation R is reflexive if there is loop at every node of directed graph.
• A relation R is irreflexive if there is no loop at any node of directed graphs.

• A relation R is symmetric if for every edge between distinct nodes, an edge is

always present in opposite direction.
• A relation R is antisymmetric if there are never two edges in opposite direction
between distinct nodes.

• A relation R is transitive if there is an edge from a to b and b to c, then there

isalways an edge from a to c.
 REFLEXIVE
• A binary relation R over a set A is called reflexive iff For any x ∈ A, we have xRx.
• Look at the picture below;

• We have loop at every node of directed graph. Therefore, it is reflexive.

 SYMMETRIC
• A binary relation R over a set A is called symmetric iff For any x ∈ A and y ∈ A, if
xRy, then yRx.
• Look at the picture below;

• We have two edges with opposite direction for each nodes. Therefore, it is
symmetric.
 TRANSITIVE
• A binary relation R over a set A is called transitive iff For any x, y, z ∈ A, if xRy and
yRz, then xRz.
• • Look at the picture below;
EXAMPLE
𝑅₁ = {(1,1) , (1,2) , (2,1) , (2,2) , (3,4) , (4,1) , (4,4)} ;
Consider the following relations on {1, 2, 3, 4} :

𝑅₂ = {(1,1) , (1,2) , (2,1)}

𝑅₃ = {(1,1) , (1,2) , (1,4 ), (2,1) , (2,2) , (3,3) , (4,1) , (4,4)} ;
𝑅₄ = {(2,1) , (3,1) , (3,2) , (4,1) , (4,2) , (4,3)}
𝑅₅ = {(1,1) , (1,2) , (1,3) , (1,4) , (2,2) , (2,3) , (2,4) , (3,3) , (3,4) , (4,4)} ;
𝑅₆ = {(3,4)}
Which of these relations are reflexive?

Solution:
The relations 𝑅₃ and 𝑅₅ are reflexive because they both contain all
pairs of the form 𝑎, 𝑎 , namely (1,1) , (2,2) , (3,3) , (4,4) .
EXAMPLE
𝑅₁ = {(1,1) , (1,2) , (2,1) , (2,2) , (3,4) , (4,1) , (4,4)} ;
Consider the following relations on 1, 2, 3, 4 :

𝑅₂ = {(1,1) , (1,2) , (2,1)}

𝑅₃ = {(1,1) , (1,2) , (1,4) , (2,1) , (2,2) , (3,3) , (4,1) , (4,4) ;
𝑅₄ = {(2,1) , (3,1) , (3,2) , (4,1) , (4,2) , (4,3 )
𝑅₅ = {(1,1) , (1,2) , (1,3) , (1,4) , (2,2) , (2,3) , (2,4) , (3,3) , (3,4) , (4,4)} ;
𝑅₆ = {(3,4)}
Which of these relations are symmetric, not symmetric or
antisymmetric?

Solution:
The relations 𝑅₂ and 𝑅₃ are symmetric. The relations 𝑅₁ are not symmetric
The relations 𝑅₄ , 𝑅₅ and 𝑅₆ are antisymmetric.
EXAMPLE
𝑅₁ = {(1,1) , (1,2) , (2,1) , (2,2) , (3,4) , (4,1) , (4,4)} ; 𝑅₂ = {(1,1) , (1,2) , (2,1)}
Consider the following relations on 1, 2, 3, 4 :

𝑅₃ = {(1,1) , (1,2) , (1,4) , (2,1) , (2,2) , (3,3) , (4,1) , (4,4)} ;

𝑅₄ = {(2,1) , (3,1) , (3,2) , (4,1) , (4,2) , (4,3)
𝑅₅ = {(1,1) , (1,2) , (1,3) , (1,4) , (2,2) , (2,3) , (2,4) , (3,3) , (3,4) , (4,4)} ; 𝑅₆ = {3,4}
Which of these relations are transitive?
Solution:
The relations 𝑅₄ , 𝑅₅ and 𝑅₆ are transitive.

𝑅₁ because there’s (4,1) & (1,2) but there’s no (4,2)

Not transitive:

𝑅₂ because there’s (2,1) & (1,2) but there’s no (2,2)

𝑅₃ because there’s (4,1) & (1,2) but there’s no (4,2)
Exercise E
1. Consider the relation (reflexive, symmetric and
transitive) on the set { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
R = {(1,1), (1,3), (1,5), (2,2), (2,4), (3,1), (3,3), (3,5),
(4,2), (4,4), (5,1), (5,3), (5,5)}

2. Let M = {0, 1, 2,3} and defined relation R = {(0,1),

(0,3), (1,0), (1,1), (2,3), (3,0), (3,2), (3,3)}
a) Represent the relation R using directed graph
b) Determine whether the relation R is reflexive,
symmetric or transitive. Explain your answer.
Exercise E cont...
3. Given those three relations on set A = {1,2,3,4}:

R = {(1,1),(1,2),(1,4),(2,1),(2,2),(3,3),(4,1),(4,4)}
S = {(1,1),(1,3),(1,4),(3,4)}
T = {(1,2),(2,2),(2,3)}

a) Determine which relations are reflexive. Give your

reason.
b) Determine which relations are not symmetrical.
Explain your answer.
c) Give a reason why S is transitive.
Exercise E cont...
4. Given A = {1,2,34}, B = {1,4,6,8,9} where element a is
in A is related to element b in B, if and only if b = a².

a) List the element of the relation

b) Draw the directed graph for the relation
c) Determine whether the relation is reflexive or not.
d) Is the relation symmetric? Explain your answer.
 EQUIVALENCE RELATIONS

A relation on a set A is called an equivalence relation if it is

• Reflexive
• symmetricand
• transitive.
Chapter 4: SETS, RELATIONS
AND FUNCTIONS
4.2 Carry out functions
4.2.1 Define functions
4.2.2 Describe basic constructions
4.2.3 Explain the properties of following functions:
4.2.3a One-to-one functions
4.2.3b Onto functions
4.2.3c Composite functions
4.2.3d Inverse functions
4.2.4 Describe Floor and Ceiling functions
 DEFINE FUNCTIONS
Example:

• A function is a relation that has

exactly one output for each
possible input in the domain.
• A function maps values to one and
only one value.
 DEFINE FUNCTIONS
Example:
NOT A FUNCTION when:
• Any values in the domain has not
been mapped to any element from
the codomain. • The element 1 from the domain has
• Any values in the domain have been not been mapped to any element from
mapped to more than one element the codomain.
from the codomain • The element 2 from the domain has
been mapped to more than one
element from the codomain (a and c).
 DESCRIBE BASIC CONSTRUCTIONS
Example:
If we write (define) a function as 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥², then we say 'f of x equals x squared' and we
have
f( − 1) = 1; f(1) = 1; f(7) = 49; f(1 / 2) = 1 / 4; f(4) = 16 and so on.
This function f maps numbers to their squares (as mapping/graphic below)

Remark: Functions are sometimes also called

mappings or transformations
 IMPORTANT TERMS USED IN
FUNCTIONS
• The element in set A is called the domain
• The element in set B is called codomain
• Unique element of B which is assign to A is called image / range
EXAMPLE

Domain = {a, b, c, d}
Codomain = {r, s, t, u}
Range/Image = {r, s, u}
 PROPERTIES OF FUNCTIONS
Example:
1. ONE-TO-ONE FUNCTION Determine whether the function f from {a,
• A function f is said to be one-to-one, b, c, d} to {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} with f(a) = 4, f(b) =
if and only if f(a) ≠ f(b) whenever a ≠ 5, f(c) = 1 and f(d) = 3 is one-to-one.
b.
• If different element in domain A has Solution:
distinct / it’s individual image The function f is
one-to-one.
 PROPERTIES OF FUNCTIONS
2. ONTO FUNCTION
• Each element of B is the images of element of A (all codomain is an image of
domain)
 PROPERTIES OF FUNCTIONS
3. COMPOSITE FUNCTION
• Let g be a function from the set A to the set B and let f be a function from the set B
to the set C. The composition of the functions f and g, denoted by f о g, is defined
by

(f о g)(a) = f (g (a))

• In symbol: 𝑔: 𝐴 → 𝐵, 𝑓: 𝐵 → 𝐶 = 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔: 𝐴 → 𝐶
• Composition function happened when codomain B is the domain in 𝑓: 𝐵 → 𝐶
EXAMPLE
Composition function 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔
EXAMPLE
Let f and g be the functions from the set of integers to the set of integers
defined by f(x) = 2x + 3 and g(x) = 3x + 2. What is 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔 and 𝑔 ∘ 𝑓?
Solution:
𝑓 ∘ 𝑔(𝑥) = f (g(x)) = f (3x + 2)
= 2 (3x + 2) + 3
= 6x + 4 + 3
= 6x + 7

𝑔 ∘ 𝑓 = g (f (x)) = g (2x + 3)
= 3 (2x + 3) + 2
= 6x + 9 + 2
= 6x + 11
EXAMPLE
Given f(x) = and fg(x) = 3x.
What is 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔 and 𝑔 ∘ 𝑓?

Solution:
Given f (x) =
fg (x) = ……................(1)
Given fg (x) = 3x……….(2)
= 3x
∴ 𝑔(𝑥) =
=
EXAMPLE
 PROPERTIES OF FUNCTIONS

4. INVERSE FUNCTION
• If a function f from A to B is a one-to-one, then there is a function from B to A that
“undoes” f, that is: it sends each element of B back to the element of A that it came
from via f.
• The function is invertible if a function f is Onto function and at the same time it
also one-to-one function.
• The inverse function of f is denoted: f ⁻¹.
EXAMPLE
Let f be the function from {a, b, c} to {1, 2, 3} defined by f(a) = 2, f(b) = 3, and f(c) =
1. Is f invertible, and if it is, what is its inverse?

Solution:
The function f is invertible because it is a one-to-one. The inverse function f ⁻¹
reverse the correspondence given by f, so f ⁻¹(2) = a, f ⁻¹(3) = b, and f ⁻¹(1) = c. This
illustrated in figure below.
EXAMPLE
Given the function f(x) = , x ≠ 6. Find the value 𝒇⁻¹(3).
Solution:
Let 𝒚 = 𝒇⁻¹ (𝟑)
𝒇 (𝒚) = 𝟑
Substitute the coefficient x with y into f(x)
=𝟑
𝒚 + 8 = 3(𝒚 − 6) ; 𝒚 + 8 = 3𝒚 − 18
Find the value of 𝒚;
𝟑𝒚 − 𝒚 = 8 + 18
2𝒚 = 26; 𝒚 = 13
𝒚 = 𝒇⁻¹ (𝟑) → 𝒇⁻¹ (𝟑) = 𝟏𝟑
EXAMPLE
Given f(x) = 2 + 𝑥² and g ∘ 𝑓(x) = Step 2, substitute 𝑓⁻¹ (x) into gf(x)
Find g(x) ? ∴ 𝑔𝑓(𝑓−1(x)) =
𝑔(𝑥) =
Solution:
Step 1, find 𝑓⁻¹(x)
Let 𝑓⁻¹(x) =y
x = f(y)
x = 2 + 𝑦²
𝑦²= x-2
TIPS:
1- Find 𝒇⁻¹𝒙
𝑦 = √(x−2)
2-Substitute 𝒇⁻¹𝒙 into gf(x)
∴ 𝑓−1(x) = √(x−2)
Exercise F
• Given g = {(1,b), (2,c), (3,a)}, a function from X
= {1, 2, 3} to Y = {a, b, c, d} and f = {(a,x), (b,x),
(c,z), (d,w)}, a function from Y to Z = {w, x, y, z},
write f ∘ g as a set of ordered pairs and draw
the arrow diagram of f ∘ g.
• Let f and g be functions from the positive
integers to the positive integers defined by
equations f(n) = 2n + 1, g(n) = 3n – 1 . Find the
compositions f ∘ f , g ∘ g , f ∘ g , and g ∘ f.
• Given that the function f(x) = 4x + 1, find a
formula for f −1(x).
Exercise F cont…
4. Given that the functions g(x) = x – 2 and f (g(x))
= x² – 4x + 8. Find:
a) g(8)
b) The values of x if f (g(x)) = 13
c) The function f
d) g ⁻¹(-1)

5. Given that f(x)= 2x+x² and g(x)= 1 –

a) f(3)
b) fg(– 4)
 DESCRIBE FLOOR AND CEILING
FUNCTIONS
Example:
• Floor Function: the greatest integer What is the floor and ceiling of 2.31?
that is less than or equal to x
• Ceiling Function: the least integer
that is greater than or equal to x
• The floor and ceiling functions are
useful in many applications, Solution:
including those involving data The Floor of 2.31 is 2
storage and data transmission. The Ceiling of 2.31 is 3
 DESCRIBE FLOOR AND CEILING
FUNCTIONS
Floor and Ceiling of Integers Some examples in table form:
What if we want the floor or ceiling of a
number that is already an integer?
That's easy: no change!

Example:
What is the floor and ceiling of 5?
Solution:
The Floor of 2.31 is 2 & the Ceiling of
2.31 is 3
 IMPORTANT SYMBOLS
• The symbols for floor and ceiling are like the square brackets [ ] with the top or
bottom part
• missing:
 GRAPH OF THE FLOOR AND CEILING
FUNCTIONS
The graph of floor function The graph of ceiling function

Note:
a solid dot means "including" & an open dot means "not including"
Exercise G
1. Find these values.
a) ⌊ ̶1 ⌋
b) ⌈ 3 ⌉
c)
d) ⌊ 8.9 + 0.7 ⌋
e) ⌊ 8.9 ⌋ + ⌊ 0.7 ⌋
f) ⌊ 0.5 + ⌈ 1.3 ⌉ - ⌈ -1.3 ⌉ ⌋
g) ⌈ ⌊1.6 ⌋ + 2.3 -⌈1.1⌉ ⌉

2. Calculate the value of ⌈ 3.7 ⌉ − ⌈ 1.2 + ⌊ 2.5 ⌋ ⌉ + ⌊ 4.2 ⌋.