INSTRUMENTATION Process Control

Instrumentation - According to standards • A primer on industrial processes

(ISA S 51.1, SAMA PMC 20.1, ANSI C 85.1), • A technique of balancing supply and demand
it is “A collection of instruments or their over a period of time at a predetermined level
application to the purpose of observation, of operation.
measurement or control”. • Controller algorithm
𝑃𝑉 − 𝑆𝑃 = 𝑒
Divisions of Instrumentation (ISA) • In instrumentation, process refers to the
• Computers, Information Technology, characteristic of an operation which must be
Communications, Telecommunications, Data maintained.
Handling and Telemetry • Process Variable (PV) is the characteristic of
• Aerospace/Avionics the process which must be measured and
• Marine Science and Marine Biology controlled
• Metrology • There must be a required value of the process
• Automation (Machine) variable, called the set point or set value,
• Process Automation and Control which will be the basis of the controller on
• Analytical where it will hold the process
• Biomedical
• Cryogenics
• Nuclear
• Power

Careers
• Instrument Manufacturer and Service
Provider
• Design and Application Engineers
• Supplier, Sales and System Integrators
• Maintenance Engineers in Process Industries

Areas of Instrumentation Engineering

• Design
• Project
• Start-up and Commissioning
• Maintenance and Troubleshooting
 The Automatic Process Control Diagram Sources of error in instrument
• Incorrect Calibration
• Noise (EMI, RFI, Inductive coupling)
• Relative speed of response
• System deterioration (zero drift, span drift)
• Error of observation (parallax error, wrong
interpretation)
Signal Transmission
• A transmitter is a device that changes the
Transmitter Selection Criteria
value of a measured variable to a standard
• Range over which the device is to function
signal that can be easily sent to other
• Medium
instruments or devices.
• Output signal desired for proper interfacing
• Transducer + Amplifier + Signal
• Acceptable error
Conditioning
• Required excitation
• It is used to extend the distance between the
• Material compatibility of wetted parts to fluid
sensing
to be measured
element and the display device
• Expected operating life, maintainability and
• It is based on a principle that one variable is
ease of replacement
proportional to the other.
• Size, weight and mounting characteristic of
the device
•Types of Signals
• Quality of environment where the transmitter
• Electric Signals – current or voltage signals
will be located
• Pneumatic Signals – value of air or gas
pressures
PRINCIPLES OF MEASURING
• Hydraulic Signals – value of fluid pressures
ELEMENTS
• Telemetered Signals – frequencies, pulse
Basic Characteristics of a Measuring Device
width and amplitude of radio wave signals
•Output represents the input with fidelity
• Linear input/output relationship
Standard Signal Conversions in
• No effect of temperature and others
Instrumentation
• E/I
Range
• P/I
• Instrument range
• A/D
• Found in the specification sheets
• J/I
• Calibration range
• A/A
• Actual process operation range
• I/I
• The range in which the instrument
will be used in the process, and the
There are three standardized signals used in
basis of programming the controller
process
Span
control systems
- algebraic difference between the upper range
• 4 to 20 milliamperes
and lower range values of an instrument, more
• 1 to 5 volts DC
specifically on the range where an instrument
• 3 to 15 psig
is calibrated
- 𝑆𝑝𝑎𝑛 = 𝑈𝑅𝑉 − 𝐿𝑅𝑉
 Standard Instrumentation Signals Factors to consider in selection of
• Mechanical/Pneumatic Signals transmitters
• English standard is 3 to 15 psig •Measuring Range - The range of the
• Metric standard is 0.2 to 1.0 bar operation needed to measure the process must
• Electrical Signals be inside the range available for the device
• 4-20 mA current signal • Rule of the thumb - 20% instrument in
• Preferred signal standard calibration range
• Not easily affected by series • Check rangeability - open circuit and series
circuitry element
• Distinguish the low state •Output Signal
from an open circuit - A standard signal is much easier to be
• 1-5 V voltage signal used than the non-standard signals
- More devices can be inserted easily into
Non-standard Instrumentation Signals the instrument loop
• Electrical •Accuracy and Rangeability
• Current signals such as 0 – 20 mA, 10 to 50 • Accuracy - refers to the degree of
mA, 0 to 1 mA conformity of an indicated value to a
• Voltage signals such as 0 to 5 V, 0 to 10 V, recognized accepted standard or ideal value
-10 to 10 V, 0 to 100 mV • Rangeability - is defined as the ratio of
• Resistance maximum process value to minimum
• Frequency process value in an instrument
• Capacitance •Built-in indicator - There are transmitters
• Inductance called as blind, since they do not show any
• Telemetry value of the process where they are connected
• Fieldbus •Enclosure standards
• IP (International Protection Rating,
Types of measuring equipments or Ingress Protection Ratings) – IEC
• Sensors standard 60529
The part of the loop that first senses the value • 1st digit – protection from solids
of the process variable and assumes a • 2nd digit – protection from liquids
corresponding, predetermined and intelligible • NEMA enclosure standards
state or output. • Mounting methods
• Transducers • Special communications
A general term for a device that receives • Special standards approval
information in the form of one or more • Wetted materials
physical quantities and produces a resultant • Process connection
output signal
• Transmitters TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT
A device that senses a process variable thru the ▪ Boiling point of water (at sea level) is
medium of a sensor and has an output whose 100℃ or 212 ℉
steady state value varies only as a function of ▪ Freezing point of water (at sea level) is
the process variable 28.4 ℉ - sea water
32 ℉ - fresh water
Types of Transmitters
•Conventional Transmitters
•Smart Transmitters
Boiling point Calibration of Bimetallic Thermometers
▪ Boiling point of water is a function of ▪ Calibration with a reference thermometer
elevation. The higher the elevation, the lower may be done at any number of temperature
the boiling point of water. Use the following ranges, however, it is strongly suggested that
equations to calculate the boiling point of you use a calibration temperature close to the
water temperature range at which the thermometer
▪ Boiling Pt (°F) = 212 – (0.0018 x elevation in will actually be used. Use of a reference
feet) thermometer certified by the National Institute
▪ Boiling Pt (°C) = 100 – (0.001 x elevation in of Standards and Technology is strongly
feet) suggested.
▪ The elevation of West Lafayette, Ind., is 617
feet above sea level. The adjusted boiling point Glass Liquid Thermometer
of water for West Lafayette is: ▪ A glass-liquid thermometer is likely what
°F = 212 – (0.0018 x 617 feet) = 210.9°F first comes to mind when most people think of
°C = 100 – (0.001 x 617 feet) = 99.4°C temperature measurement.
▪ Conversion formulas ▪ Typically simple, a glass-liquid thermometer
°F = 32 + (9/5 x °C) consists of a glass cylinder with a capillary
°C = 5/9 x (°F – 32) hole containing either mercury or alcohol.
▪ Glass-liquid thermometers are often used as a
Types of devices and how to choose reference thermometer, but not for real-time
monitoring processes.

Thermocouples
▪ Thermocouples are made of two dissimilar
metals, joined to produce a voltage when the
measured temperature deviates from the
reference temperature.
▪ The selection of the two metals determines
the thermocouple’s application temperature,
measuring environment, required service life,
accuracy, and cost.
▪ There are hundreds of thermocouple designs.
Bimetallic Thermometers Many designs are tailored to a specific
▪ Generally, bimetal thermometers consist of a measurement need.
metal stem encasing a coil of two different ▪ Thermocouple thermometers have been
metals bonded together to a temperature standardized for use worldwide. Specifications
indicator at the head include letter coding, color coding,
▪ It is important to note that the indicated voltage/temperature tables, and operational
temperature is an average of temperatures limits.
along the sensing region, making proper
placement critical to accurate measurement.
▪ Because of this average range, bimetal
thermometers are not suited for products
undergoing rapid heating or cooling.
 ▪ The detector converts the emitted radiation
into a temperature reading and displays the
temperature almost immediately. Most infrared
thermometers have a range of 10 feet and
respond within a half second. The easiest of all
thermometers to use and read, all that is
involved is to point the sensor at the desired
object, press a button, and read the
temperature.
▪ It is essential to note that while the range
Resistance Temperature Detectors may be 10 feet, the closer the sensor is to the
▪ RTDs are temperature sensors based on the target object the more accurate the reading will
nearly linear relationship between metal be. This is because the spot size becomes
resistance and temperature. larger as the distance between target and
▪ Typically, high-end RTDs are made from sensor increases.
wire-wound or thin-film platinum, providing ▪ As a general rule of thumb for accurate
for a highly sensitive but expensive measurement, the target object should be at
temperature sensor least twice the diameter of the spot size.
▪ RTDs also must be calibrated periodically.
This type of thermometer is stable and highly Infrared Radiation Pyrometer
accurate but extremely fragile, so weekly ▪ It is also important to be aware that infrared
calibration is suggested. thermometers only measure surface
temperatures. Another point to consider is
Thermistors emissivity, which is an object’s ability to
▪ Like RTDs, thermistors are temperature absorb or release energy. Reflective surfaces,
sensors that measure current and convert it to such as metal, will show temperatures lower
temperature. Where RTDs typically use than the actual. Most infrared thermometers
expensive platinum, thermistors utilize may be adjusted by using a reference
inexpensive semiconductors. As temperature thermometer to take a temperature reading of
changes, the semiconductor resistance also the surface in question.
changes. The resistance can then be converted
and displayed as a temperature. Optical Pyrometer
▪ Most medical thermometers are ▪ Used to sense temperature on flames. The
limitedtemperature thermistor-type color of the flame or light represents a specific
thermometers. They are mass-produced for temperature
specific sensitivity and range requirements.
Typically, these devices do not have
temperature adjustment capability, thus a
correction factor must be determined when
they are calibrated.

Infrared radiation thermometer

▪ Infrared radiation thermometers collect
radiated infrared energy emitted from the
surface of an object. They measure surface
temperature only.
 INTRODUCTION TO PRESSURE ■ Since dynamic pressure is referenced to
MEASUREMENT static pressure, it is neither gauge nor absolute;
Pressure it is a differential pressure.
■ The common pressures measured are the
hydrostatic pressure of a liquid column and the Manual pressure gauges
atmospheric pressure. ■ Bourdon tubes
■ In general, pressure is defined as follows: if ■ Bellows
a force per unit area is applied in a direction ■ Aneroid
perpendicular to a surface, then the ratio of the ■ McLeod Gauge
force value F to the surface area A is called ■ Hydrostatic
pressure p ■ Piston
𝑝 =
𝐹 ■ Liquid column
𝐴
■ Diaphragm
■ To transmit pressure, incompressible media
such as liquids are suitable. To store energy in
Electronic pressure measurement - a sensor
the form of pressure work, compressible media
is required to detect the pressure and/or its
such as gases are used.
change, and to convert it accurately and
■ Pressure can be negative or positive
repeatedly into an electrical signal utilizing a
physical operating principle. The electrical
Absolute, gauge and differential pressures -
signal is then a measure of the magnitude of
zero reference
the applied pressure or change in pressure.
■ Absolute pressure is zero referenced
Four key measuring principles and their
against a perfect vacuum, so it is equal to
technical realization are shown below.
gauge pressure plus atmospheric pressure.
■ Gauge pressure is zero referenced against
Resistive pressure measurement - based on the
ambient air pressure, so it is equal to absolute
measurement of the change in resistance of
pressure minus atmospheric pressure. Negative
electric conductors caused by a
signs are usually omitted.
pressure-dependent deflection.
■ Differential pressure is the difference in
𝑙
pressure between two points. 𝑅=ρ 𝑎

Static and Dynamic pressure Piezo-resistive pressure measurement -

■ Static pressure is uniform in all directions, similar to the principle of resistive pressure
so pressure measurements are independent of measurement. However, since the strain
direction in an immovable (static) fluid. Flow, gauges used for this measuring principle are
however, applies additional pressure on made of a semiconductor material, their
surfaces perpendicular to the flow direction, deflection due to elongation or compression
while having little impact on surfaces parallel results primarily in a change in resistivity.
to the flow direction.
■ This directional component of pressure in a
moving (dynamic) fluid is called dynamic
pressure.
■ An instrument facing the flow direction
measures the sum of the static and dynamic
pressures; this measurement is called the total
pressure or stagnation pressure.
Capacitive pressure measurement - based The measured medium can be liquid, gas or
on the measurement of the capacitance of a solid and stored in vessels (open/closed tanks),
capacitor, which is dependent upon the plate silos, bins and hoppers.
separation. The capacitance of a dual-plate Units of level can be expressed in:
capacitor is determined using the following • feet (meters)
equation: • gallons (liters)
• pounds (kilograms)
3 3
• cubic volume (𝑓𝑡 , 𝑚 )

Direct Methods
• Direct methods sense the surface or interface
of the liquid and is not affected by changes in
Piezo-electric pressure measurement material density (Specific Gravity)
■ The principle of piezo-electric pressure • Measures the process variable directly in
measurement is based on the physical effect of terms of itself.
the same name, only found in some
non-conductive crystals, e.g. monocrystalline Hook-type Level Indicator
quartz. • When the level of liquid in an open tank is
■ If such a crystal is exposed to pressure or measured directly on a scale, it is sometimes
tensile force in a defined direction, certain difficult to read the level accurately because of
opposed surfaces of the crystal are charged, parallax error
positive and negative, respectively.
Sight Glass
LEVEL MEASUREMENT • Another simple direct method of measuring
Methods liquids.
❑ Direct Method • Can be used in pressurized tanks (as long as
❑ Hydrostatic Pressure Type the glass or plastic tube can handle the
❑ Electrical Type pressure)
❑ Microwave Level Switches • Simple sight glasses may be just a plastic or
❑ Optical Level Detector glass tube connected to the bottom of the tank
❑ Ultrasonic Level Detector at one end and the top of the tank at the other.
❑ Eddy Current Level Measurement Sensors • The level of liquid in the sight glass will be
❑ Servicing of Level Measuring Instruments the same as the level of liquid in the tank.

Level - is another common process variable Floats Type Level Indicator - Float rides the
that is measured in many industries. The surface level to provide the measurement.
method used will vary widely depending on
the nature of the industry, the process, and the Dip Stick
application. • Simple and cheap
Level measurement – the act of establishing • Can be used with any wet material and not
the height of a liquid surface in reference to a affected by density.
zero point • Can not be used with pressurized tanks
• Visual indication only (electronic versions
are available)
RodGauge - similar to a dipstick found in a • The supply liquid pressure is determined by
car, it has weighted line markings to indicate the range of liquid level to the monitored.
depth or volume
Bubblers - allow the indicator to be located
Indirect Methods (Inferential) [Link] air pressure in the tube varies
• Indirect methods “infer” liquid level by with the head pressure of the height of the
measuring some other physical parameter such liquid.
as pressure, weight, or temperature.
• Changing materials means a corrective factor Electrical Type
must be used or recalibrating the instrument. A. Capacitance Level Indicator
• Measures another process variable (e.g. head • The principle of operation of capacitance
pressure or weight) in order to infer level. level indicator is based upon the familiar
capacitance equation of a parallel plate
Hydrostatic Pressure Type capacitor
A. Pressure Gauge method - the simplest B. Radiation Level Detector
method used in liquid level measurement • Used where other electrical methods would
B. Air Bellows - used for liquid level not survive.
measurement where an indicator cannot be • Also the most common reason for using a
conveniently located at the specified datum radiation level detector is that it does not need
line. to come in contact with the liquid being
C. Air Purge System measured.
- Also known as bubbler tube.
- This system is 1 of the most popular Microwave Level Switches
hydrostatic pressure type of liquid level • This example shows two Microwave
measuring system which is suitable for any switches being utilized as blocked chute
liquid. detectors.
D. Liquid Purge System • This range of switch will not detect the
• When an air purge system is unsuitable, constant falling material under normal
because air bubbling through liquid may operating conditions.
interface with its crystallization, a liquid purge • However, if the chute blocks then the
system is used. microwave signal will decrease and the switch
• The construction & working of liquid purge will detect this change and will output an
system is the same as an air purge system, the alarm condition.
only difference is that in place of air, water or • This provides an ideal noncontact,
light material oil is used as the purge liquid. non-invasive solution.
• The nature of the purging liquid must be such
that the introduction of small quantities of it Optical Level Detectors
into the plant will not affect the product on • Optical level detector make use of visible or
process. infrared light beams to detect the level of
• It should be free flowing & not vaporize at liquids or solids.
the temperature of the pipe line. • A beam of light is aimed at the liquid or
• The purging liquid may be either soluble or solids level & is reflected back to a
insoluble in the vessel liquid. light-sensitive transistor, located in the same
• The rate of flow of the purging liquid is holder as the light source.
normally adjusted to about 1 gallon/hour.
Fiber-optic Level Detectors - use the factors, finally transmitter uses the new
principle of light refraction. correction factors to compute a new correct
measurement reading Analog Output Trim is
Ultrasonic Level Detector applied to eliminate error the analog output
• Non-Contact direct level sensor signal. For instance, if the analog output
• Level is a function of the time it takes an current is 4.13 mA when it should be 4.00 mA,
ultrasonic pulse to hit the surface and retur then analog output trim is used to adjust it to 4
mA.
Eddy Current Level Measurement Sensors
• Use eddy-current principle to measure the FLOW MEASUREMENT
level of molten (liquid) metals or other The common types of flowmeters that find
conducting liquids in a tank. industrial applications can be listed as below
– Obstruction type (differential pressure or
Servicing Of Level Measuring Instruments variable area)
Reasons – to reduce plant down time & to – Inferential (turbine type)
make sure that field instruments give accurate – Electromagnetic and Positive displacement
readings. (integrating)
– fluid dynamic (vortex shedding) and
DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE Anemometer
TRANSMITTER FOR MEASURING – ultrasonic and Mass flow meter (Coriolis)
LEVEL
Range setting (re-ranging) - is the step to OBSTRUCTION TYPE FLOW METER
adjust calibration range (LRV and URV). LRV • Obstruction or head type flowmeters are of
is a value at what input shall the transmitter two types: differential pressure type and
analog output be 4mA, and URV is a value at variable area type
what input shall the transmitter analog output • Orifice meter, Venturimeter, Pitot tube fall
be 20 mA. Lower Range Value (LRV) often under the first category, while rotameter is of
referred to as “zero” meaning 0%, and Upper the second category
Range Value (URV), sometimes called “full • In all the cases, an obstruction is created in
scale” meaning 100%. the flow passage and the pressure drop across
Zero sensor trim - requires the physical input the obstruction is related with the flow rate
applied to be zero (e.g. by isolate, equalize,
and vent the manifold) in case seal diaphragm VARIABLE AREA TYPE
type, putting both High and Low side • It is well know that flow can be of two types:
diaphragm at the same elevation is the method viscous and turbulent. Whether a flow is
to make zero condition. viscous or turbulent can be decided by the
Lower sensor trim - the physical input values Reynold’s number
applied for lower sensor trim is • In the present case we will assume that the
value near to LRV. flow is turbulent, that is the normal case for
Upper sensor trim - the physical input values practical situations. We consider the fluid flow
applied for higher sensor trim is value near to through a closed channel of variable cross
URV. section
Performing sensor trim - means following • The channel is of varying cross section and
step are undergo; telling to the transmitter we consider two cross sections of the channel,
what is the input, then transmitter calculates 1 and 2
internal correction
• Let the pressure, velocity, cross sectional TURBINE TYPE FLOWMETER
area and height above the datum be expressed • simple way for measuring flow velocity
as p1, v1, A1 and z1 for section 1 and the
corresponding values for section 2 be p2, v2, VORTEX FLOW METER
A2 and z2 respectively and we also assume A vortex flow meter works based on the
that the fluid flowing is incompressible principle of ‘Karman vortex street'
demonstrated in the figure on left side. This
VENTURIMETER principle essentially means that when an
• A Venturimeter is a device used for obstruction is placed in path of a flow (similar
measuring the rate of a flow of a fluid flowing to a flagpole in the wind), it can produce a
through a pipe. It consists of three parts. series a vortices alternating from each side of
• It is based on the principle of Bernoulli’s the obstruction as seen in the figure. The
equation. frequency of vortices (measured using
• Inside of the Venturimeter pressure difference transmitter and receiver) is proportional to the
is created by reducing the cross-sectional area flow rate being obstructed
of the flow passage.
• The pressure difference is measured by using The the frequency of vortex formation is given
a differential U-tube manometer. by: f = Nst*v/d
• This pressure difference helps in the Nst = A constant, called Strouhal Number
determination of rate of flow of fluid or
discharge through the pipe line.
• As the inlet area of the venturi is large than at
the throat, the velocity at the throat increases
resulting in decrease of pressure. By this, a
pressure difference is created between the inlet
and the throat of the venturi.

PITOT TUBE
• widely used for velocity measurement in
aircraft

ELECTROMAGNETIC FLOWMETER
• It works on the principle of basic
electromagnetic induction; i.e. when a
conductor moves along a magnetic field
perpendicular to the direction of flow, a
voltage would be induced perpendicular to the
direction of movement as also to the magnetic
filed
• The flowing liquid acts like a conductor.
External magnetic field is applied
perpendicular to the direction of the flow and
two electrodes are flushed on the wall of the
pipeline as shown.
• The expression for the voltage induced is
given by: e= B*v