Chapter 1: Introduction to

Instrumentation
MMJ25102: Instrumentation
Measurement
• A measurement is an act of assigning a specific value to a physical
variable. That physical variable is the measured variable.
• A measurement system is a tool used for quantifying the measured
variable.
• As such, a measurement system is used to extend the abilities of the
human senses that, while they can detect and recognize different
degrees of roughness, length, sound, color, and smell, are limited and
relative; they are not very adept at assigning specific values to sensed
variables.
• Measurements are made with the help of instruments.
Measurement
• Measurements are made or measurement systems are set up for one or
more of the following functions:
1. To monitor processes and operations
• Thermometers, barometers, anemometers, water, gas, electricity meters only indicate certain
quantities. Their readings do not perform any control functions in the ordinary sense. These
measurements are made for monitoring purposes only.
2. To control processes and operations
• The thermostat in a refrigerator or geyser determines the temperature of the relevant
environment and accordingly switches or the cooling or heating mechanism to keep the
temperature constant, i.e. to control the temperature.
OFF ON

3. To carry-out some analysis.

• Measurements are also made to
1. test the validity of predictions from theories,
2. build empirical models, i.e. relationships between parameters and quantities associated with a
problem, and
3. characterize materials, devices and components.
Instruments
• An instrument can be defined as a device or a system which is designed in such
a way that it maintains a functional relationship between a prescribed property
of a substance and a physical variable, and communicates this relationship to a
human observer by some ways and means.

For example, a mercury-in-glass thermometer is

an instrument, because it maintains a linear
relationship between thermal expansion of
mercury (prescribed property) and temperature
(physical variable) and communicates this
relationship to us through a graduated scale.
Measurement system
• Basically such a system consists of part or all of 4 general stages:
1. Sensing element - transducer
2. A signal conditioner,
3. Signal processing
4. A display /recording device/submit to another system i.e feedback control
system.
Transducer- Sensing element
• The term transducer is often used in relation to measurement systems. This is in
contact with the process and gives an output which depends in some way on the
variable to be measured.
• Transducers are defined as an element that converts a change in some physical
variable into a related change in some other physical variable.
• It is generally used for an element that converts a change in some physical
variable into an electrical signal change. Thus sensors can be transducers.
• However, a measurement system may use transducers, in addition to the sensor,
in other parts of the system to convert signals in one form to another form.
Examples:
Thermocouple where millivolt e.m.f. depends on temperature
Strain gauge where resistance depends on mechanical strain
Orifice plate where pressure drop depends on flow rate.
Example:

Thermister
Thermocouple Strain gauge
Signal conditioning
• This takes the output of the sensing element and converts it into a form
more suitable for further processing, usually a d.c. voltage, d.c. current or
frequency signal.
• It also perform tasks such as increasing the magnitude of the signal by
amplification, removing portions of the signal through some filtering
technique, or providing mechanical or optical linkage between the
transducer and the output stage.
• Examples are:
• Deflection bridge which converts an impedance change into a voltage change
• Amplifier which amplifies millivolts to volts
• Oscillator which converts an impedance change into a variable frequency voltage.
Example:
Signal processing
• This takes the output of the conditioning element and converts it into a
form more suitable for presentation.
• Examples are:
• Analogue-to-digital converter (ADC) which converts a voltage into a digital
form for input to a computer.
• Computer/Microcontroller which calculates the measured value of the
variable from the incoming digital data.
• A microcontroller is a compact integrated circuit designed to govern a
specific operation in an embedded system. A typical microcontroller
includes a processor, memory and input/output (I/O) peripherals on a
single chip.
Example:
Data presentation element
• This presents the measured value in a form which enables an observer
to recognize it .
• This may be via a display, e.g. a pointer moving across the scale of a
meter or visual display unit (VDU).
• Alternatively, the signal may be recorded, e.g. on the paper of a chart
recorder or on magnetic disc, or transmitted to some other system such as
a control system.
Example:
 Displacement sensor
Pressure sensor
Temperature measurement

Voltage, Current, Resistance Level measurement

measurement
Static Characteristics of Instruments
1. Accuracy.
2. Precision.
3. Tolerance.
4. Range and span.
5. Repeatability and reproduceability.
6. Sensitivity.
7. Linearity.
8. Threshold.
9. Resolution.
10.Hysteresis and dead space.
Accuracy (measurement uncertainty)
• The accuracy of an instrument is a measure of how close the output
reading of the instrument is to the correct value.
• In practice, it is more usual to quote the inaccuracy or measurement
uncertainty value rather than the accuracy value for an instrument.
• Inaccuracy or measurement uncertainty is the extent to which a
reading might be wrong.
Types of accuracy
• Measured variable; the accuracy is ±2℃ in some temperature measurement.
Thus, there would be an uncertainty of ±2℃ in any value of temperature
measured.
• Percentage of the instrument full-scale (FS) reading. Thus, an accuracy of ±0.5%
FS in a 5-V full-scale range meter would mean the inaccuracy or uncertainty in
any measurement is ±0.025 V.
• Percentage of instrument span—that is, percentage of the range of instrument
measurement capability. Thus, for a device measuring of ±3% span for a 20 to 50
psi range of pressure, the accuracy would be (±0.03) 50 − 20 = ±0.9 psi.
• Percentage of the actual reading. Thus, for a ±2% of reading voltmeter, we
would have an inaccuracy of ±0.04 V for a reading of 2 V.
Example
• A temperature sensor has a span of 20℃ − 250℃. A measurement results in a
value of 55℃ for the temperature. Specify the error if the accuracy is (a)
±0.5%FS, (b) ±0.75% of span, and (c) ±0.8% of reading. What is the possible
temperature in each case?
 Example:

Comments on the example

• The max. measurement error is a constant value independent of the measured value.
• If measured quantity is significantly less than ( f.s.) reading possible measurement error is
amplified.
• Using an instrument of a wide range (i.e. 0-10 ) bar to measure variables with expected low
values (i.e. 0-1 bar) is a design flaw.
(a) 1.0% x 10 bar = 0.1 bar
(b) The max. measurement error is a constant value independent of the measured value
 max possible error = 0.1 bar
 10% of 1 bar
19
Precision
• The term precision is used to describe the degree of freedom of a
measurement system from random errors. If a large number of readings are
taken of the same quantity by a high-precision instrument, then the spread
of readings will be very small.
• low precision - large spread of readings.
• high precision – small spread of readings.
• Example:
Set 1: 20.1 mm, 20.2 mm, 20.1 mm, 20.0 mm, 20.1 mm, 20.1 mm, 20.0 mm

Set 2: 19.9 mm, 20.3 mm, 20.0 mm, 20.5 mm, 20.2 mm, 19.8 mm, 20.3 mm

• The results of the measurement give values scattered about some value.
• The first set of results shows a smaller spread of readings than the second and
indicates a higher degree of precision for the instrument used for the first set.
Different :Accuracy and Precision

High precision, low Low precision, low

accuracy accuracy

High precision, high

accuracy
Different :Accuracy and Precision
TOLERANCE
• Tolerance is a term that is closely related to accuracy and defines the maximum error that is to be
expected in some value.
• The accuracy of some instruments is sometimes quoted as a tolerance value.
• When used correctly, tolerance describes the maximum deviation of a manufactured component
from some specified value.
• Example:
RANGE
The range of a sensor is the lowest and highest values it can measure
within its specification.
• Example:
• An RTD may have a specified range of -200oC to +560oC.
• A temperature transducer with an RTD sensor may have a specified range of -10oC to Range
+65oC. -20 oC to 60 oC

SPAN Full scale reading (f.s.)

= 60 - -20 = 80 oC
The span of a sensor is the high end of the Range minus the low end of
the Range.
• Example:
• The RTD with a range of -200oC to +560oC would have a span of 760oC.
• The RTD transducer with a range of -10oC to +65oC would have a span of 75oC.
REPEATABILITY
• The repeatability of a system is its ability to give the same output or the
closeness of output readings for repeated applications of the same input value,
without the system or element being disconnected from its input or any change
in the environment in which the test is carried out.
• At same measurement conditions, same instrument and observer, same
location and same conditions of use maintained throughout.

REPRODUCIBILITY
• The reproducibility of a system is its ability to give the same output or the
closeness of output readings when it and/or elements of the system are
disconnected from the input and then reinstalled.
• When changes in the method of measurement, observer, measuring
instrument, location, conditions of use and time of measurement.
 SENSITIVITY
• The sensitivity indicates how much the output of an instrument system or
system element changes when the quantity being measured changes by a
given amount, i.e. the ratio output/input. The value of the sensitivity is
generally indicated by the transfer function.

• Example:
• For example, a thermocouple might have a sensitivity of 20 μV/°C and so give an
output of 20 μV for each 1°C change in temperature.

The sensitivity is
the slope of the High sensitivity is desirable in an
graph instrument because a large
change in output for a small
Thus, sensitivity is the ratio: change in input implies that a
measurement may be taken
scale deflection
= easily.
change in measurand producing deflection
∆output
or S =
∆input
 Sensitivity
 Example 3.3 40

Find the sensitivity of the spring 35

y = 9.8x + 0.4
scale of example 3.2 30

25

20

Solution 15

The slope of the best fit straight line 10

was found to be 9.8 mm/N. This is 5

the sensitivity of the spring scale 0

0 1 2 3 4
Example:
 Sensitivity to disturbance
 As variations occur in temperature, pressure and
other environmental conditions, certain static
instrument characteristics change, and the
sensitivity to disturbance is a measure of the
magnitude of this change.
 zero drift or bias
 sensitivity drift.
Sensitivity to disturbance:
Zero drift or Bias
 Zero drift is sometimes known by the term, bias.
This describes the effect where the zero reading of The mechanical bathroom scale is a common example of
an instrument is modified by a change in ambient an instrument that is prone to bias. It is quite usual
conditions. tonfind that there is a reading of perhaps 1 kg with no
one stood on the scale
 This causes a constant error that exists over the full
range of measurement of the instrument. Zero
drift is normally removable by calibration.
 Zero drift related to temperature changes is
measured are units/°C. This is often called the
temperature zero drift coefficient.
 If the characteristic of an instrument is sensitive to
several environmental parameters, then it will
have several zero drift coefficients, one for each
environmental parameter.

A typical change in the output characteristic

of a pressure gauge subject to zero drift
Sensitivity to disturbance:
Sensitivity Drift
 Also known as scale factor drift
 Defines the amount by which an instrument’s sensitivity
of measurement varies as ambient conditions change.
 Quantified by sensitivity drift coefficients that define
how much drift there is for a unit change in each
environmental parameter that the instrument
characteristics are sensitive to.
Change in the output characteristic
due to sensitivity drift

Example. temperature changes: for instance, the modulus of

elasticity of a spring is temperature dependent.
32
33
To be continued……..
LINEARITY
• Linearity is a relationship between input and output.
• Linear relationship normally represented by a straight-line equation which
show the relation between measured variable and measurement output.

Output of measurement Offset of straight-line

cm=mc + co

Slope of straight-line Variable to be measured

Example:
• A sensor resistance changes linearly from 100 to 180 Ω as temperature
changes from 20 to 120 °C. Find a linear equation relating resistance and
temperature.
Solution:
• Linear equation, R = mT + R0

• Find the two constant, m and R0, 100Ω = (20°C.m + R0 )

180Ω = (120°C.m + R0 )

• Substracting (1) – (2): 80Ω = (100°C ) m, m = 0.8Ω / °C

• From (1), 100Ω = (20°C )(0.8Ω / °C ) + R0

R0 = 84Ω
• Then the linear equation becomes,

R = 0.8T + 84
 Linearity
 It is desirable that the output reading of an
instrument is linearly proportional to the
quantity being measured.
 The non-linearity is the maximum deviation of
any of the output readings marked X from this
straight line.
 Non-linearity is usually expressed as a
percentage of full-scale reading.
 If the functional relationship between the input
quantity and the output reading of an
instrument is linear, we call it a linear
instrument.
 Linearity
If a linear relationship between y and x exists for a set of
measurements y1 … yn , x1 … xn then this can be
expressed as y = ax + b, where the coefficients a and b
are constants. Using least squares method the best fit to
the measurement data.

where xm and ym are the mean values of x and y.

 xi yi xi*xi xi*yi

Linearity 0
1
2
0
10
22
0
1
4
0
10
44
3 28 9 84
4 40 16 160
 Example 3.2
sum 10 100 30 298
The deflection vs. load of a spring scale were mean 2 20
recorded as in the table below.
xi yi axi+b deviation
Find the non-linearity of the spring scale. 0
1
0
10
0.4
10.2
-0.4
-0.2
Load (N) Deflection (mm) 2 22 20 2
0 0 1 3 28 29.8 -1.8
4 40 39.6 0.4
1 10
2 22
40
3 28
4 40 2 30
y = 9.8x + 0.4

20
∑ 𝑥𝑥 𝑖𝑖 𝑦𝑦 𝑖𝑖 −𝑛𝑛 𝑥𝑥 𝑚𝑚 𝑦𝑦 𝑚𝑚 298−5×2×20
𝑎𝑎 = ∑ 𝑥𝑥 𝑖𝑖2 −𝑛𝑛𝑥𝑥 𝑚𝑚
2 = = 9.8 mm/N 10
30−5×22
0
0 1 2 3 4
𝑏𝑏 = 𝑦𝑦𝑚𝑚 − 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥𝑚𝑚 = 20 − 9.8 × 2 = 0.4 mm
3
Linear equation: y = 9.8x + 0.4 Nonlinearity = (Max. deviation)/f.s *100%
Nonlinearity = (2/40)*100 = 5%
Specification of linearity
• A measure of sensor linearity is to determine the deviation of the sensor output
from a best-fit straight line over a particular range.
• A common specification of linearity is the maximum deviation from a straight line
expressed as percent of FS.

Example:
Consider a sensor that outputs a voltage as a function of pressure from 0 to
100 psi with a linearity of 5% FS.
 This means that, at some point on the curve of voltage versus pressure,
the deviation between actual pressure and linearly indicated pressure for
a given voltage deviates by 5% of 100 psi, or 5 psi.
 LINEARITY
 Figure indicates a straight line has been
fitted to the slightly nonlinear sensor curve.
 Interpretation:
 For a given voltage, there is a deviation
between actual and linearly predicted
pressure or,
 For a given pressure, there is a
deviation between actual and linearly
predicted voltage.

 Comparison of an actual curve and its best-fit

straight line, where the maximum deviation is 5%
FS.
THRESHOLD
• If the input to an instrument is increased gradually from zero, the input will have to reach
a certain minimum level before the change in the instrument output reading is of a large
enough magnitude to be detectable. This minimum level of input is known as the
threshold of the instrument.
• Manufacturers vary in the way that they specify threshold for instruments. Some quote
absolute values, whereas others quote threshold as a percentage of full-scale readings.

Example:
As an illustration, a car speedometer typically
has a threshold of about 15 km/h. This means
that, if the vehicle starts from rest and
accelerates, no output reading is observed on
the speedometer until the speed reaches 15
km/h. Eddy current speedometers used in automobiles
typically have a threshold of about 15 km/h.
Resolution
• Resolution is the smallest amount of input signal change that the instrument can
detect reliably. (minimum measurable value of the input variable)
• It shows the incremental ability of a measurement system to discriminate between
measurement values.
Example:

• In analog systems, the resolution of the system is usually determined by the smallest measurable change
in the analog output signal of the measurement system.
• In digital systems, the resolution is a well-defined quantity that is simply the change in dynamic variable
represented by a 1-bit change in the binary word output.
When the needle of a car speedometer is between the scale markings, we cannot
estimate speed more accurately than to the nearest 2.5 km/h. This represents the
resolution of the instrument.
Resolution
• **Some cases, the resolution of a measurement system depend on
sensitivity of signal conditioning. (this can be improved by employing
better conditioning.
• Example:
 Hysteresis effects
 Figure illustrates the output characteristic
of an instrument that exhibits hysteresis.
 Hysteresis is the difference between two
separate measurements taken at the same
point, the first is taken during a series of
increasing measurement values, and the
other during a series of decreasing
measurement values.

It c a n b e s e e n tha t for inc re a s ing

inp uts a nd d e c re a s ing inp uts the
m a xim um va ria tion is s e e n a t
5 0 % of the full s c a le .
 Dead space
 Dead space is defined as the range of
different input values over which there is no
change in output value. It is the range of
input values over which there is zero output
value. Any instrument that exhibits hysteresis
also displays dead space.

 For an instrument with dead space, if the input is

gradually increased from zero, it will have to reach
a certain minimum level before the change in the
instrument output reading is of a large enough
magnitude to be detectable. This minimum level
of input is also known as the threshold of the
instrument.
Dynamic Characteristics of an
Instruments
Sensor time response
• Static transfer function – specifies how the output is related to the
input if the input is constant.

• Dynamic transfer function – has time dependence that specifies how

the output changes with time when the input is changing in time.
Normally called as – time response.
• Static transfer function – determine the output when the input is not
changing in time.
• To specify time response : when the step change of the input from ci to cf,
the output will change.
• If the sensor is perfect, its output will determine by the static transfer
function where the output becomes bi at (t<0) and bf at (t ≥ 0).
• However, in practical, all sensor exhibit some lag between the output and the
input and some characteristic variation in time settling at the final value.

output
input

The dynamic transfer function specifies how a sensor output varies

when the input changes instantaneously in time (i.e., a step change).
 ao y (t ) = x(t )
Dynamic response of a sensor
• The dynamic response of the sensor is (typically) assumed to be linear .
• Therefore, it can be modeled by a constant-coefficient linear differential
equation.

• In practice, these models are confined to zero, first and second order. Higher
order models are rarely applied.
• These dynamic models are typically analyzed with the Laplace transform, which
converts the differential equation into a polynomial expression.
Zero order response ao y (t ) = x(t )

 A potentiometer,which measures motion,

is a good example of such an instrument,
where the output voltage changes
instantaneously as the slider is displaced
along the potentiometer track.
Example of zero order system, is a linear
potentiometer used as a displacement transducer.

Output voltage, e: R1
e= E
R2
First order response

First order equation (initial value start from 0): −t

y (t ) = kx0 [1 − e ]τ

First order equation (initial value start from bi):

−t
y (t ) =yi + ( y f − yi )[1 − e τ ]
 Output
Input

SENSOR −t
y (t ) = kx0 [1 − e ] τ

Input Output −t
b(t ) = bi + (b f − bi )[1 − e ] τ

SENSOR bi = initial sensor output

bf= final sensor output
τ= sensor time constant

Time constant for the first order also referred as 63% of its final value.
For a step input change, the final value is at about 5 time constants.
(about 99.3%).
Example
A sensor measures temperature linearly with a static transfer function of 33 mV/°C and has a 1.5 s
time constant. Find the output 0.75 second after the input changes from 20 °C to 41 °C. Find the
error in temperature this represents.
• Find the initial and final values of the sensor output:
bi = (33mV / °C )(20°C ) = 660mV
b f = (33mV / °C )(41°C ) = 1353mV
• Then, −t
b(t ) = bi + (b f − bi )[1 − e τ ]
− 0.75
b(0.75) = 660 + (1353 − 660)[1 − e 1.5
]
b(0.75) = 932.7 mV
• This corresponding to temperature of, T = 932.7
= 28.3°C
33mV / °C

 Its indicate that temperature differs from its actual temperature about -12.7 °C. after 5 time constants the
sensor output would be about 1353 mV which correctly indicating the actual temperature of 41 °C.
Second order sensor

 The definition of a second-order

instrument is one that has a
dynamic response behavior that can
be expressed in the form of the
above equation.

 Instruments that exhibit a spring–

mass type of behavior are second
order. Examples are galvanometers,
accelerometers, diaphragm-type
pressure transducers, and U-tube
manometers
Behavior of 2 nd order instruments
 Figure 2.12
• If 2nd order Equation is solved analytically, the
shape of the step response obtained depends on
the value of the damping ratio parameter, ξ.
• The output responses of a second-order
instrument for various values of ξ following a step
change in the value of the measured quantity at
time t are shown in Figure 2.12.
• For case A, where ξ = 0 ,there is no damping:
• the instrument output exhibits constant amplitude
oscillations when disturbed by any change in the
physical quantity measured.
• For case B, where light damping of ξ = 0.2 ,
• the response to a step change in input is still
oscillatory but the oscillations die down gradually.
• For case C , D and E:
 Clearly, the extreme response curves A and E are grossly
• A further increase in the value of reduces unsuitable for any measuring instrument. If an
oscillations and overshoots still more, as shown by instrument were to be only ever subjected to step
curves C and D, and finally the response becomes inputs, then the design strategy would be to aim toward
very overdamped, as shown by curve E, where the a damping ratio of 0.707, which gives the critically
output reading creeps up slowly toward the damped response (C).
 Unfortunately, most of the physical quantities that instruments
are required to measure do not change in the mathematically
convenient form of steps, but rather in the form of ramps of
varying slopes.
 As the form of the input variable changes, so the best value
for varies, and choice of becomes one of compromise
between those values that are best for each type of input
variable behavior anticipated.

 Commercial second-order instruments, of which the

accelerometer is a common example, are generally designed
to have a damping ratio somewhere in the range of 0.6–0.8.

Types of input:
END