Unit 6: Canal Irrigation: [8 Hrs.

]
6.1 Classification of canals
6.2 Components of canal system
6.3 Alignment of canals
6.4 Sediment transport in canal
6.5 Design of alluvial canals (Lacey’s and Kennedy’s theories)
6.6 Design of non-alluvial canals (Manning’s and Chezy’s Formulae)
6.7 Seepage of canals and lining
6.8 Canal standards
Introduction
 A canal is an artificial channel generally trapezoidal in shape constructed on the ground surface
to carry water to the fields either from the river or from tank or reservoir.
 Canal irrigation is a method of providing water to agricultural fields through a network of canals,
which are channels constructed to convey water from a water source (like a river, reservoir, or
dam) to farmlands. This method helps in the distribution of water to areas where rainfall is
insufficient for crops.
 They can be lined with concrete, brick, stone or a flexible membrane to prevent seepage and
erosion.

6.1 Classification of Canals based on Different Factors

A canal is an artificial channel constructed to convey water from rivers, reservoirs, etc. for several
purposes like power generation, navigation, irrigation, etc. Canals are classified into different types
Classification of Canals based on Different Factors
Canals are classified into different types based on factors which are as follows:
1. Based on the nature of the supply source
2. Based on functions
3. Based on the type of boundary surface soil
4. Based on the financial output
5. Based on discharge
6. Based on canal alignment

I. Based on the Nature of Supply Source

1. Permanent Canal
2. Inundation Canal
1. Permanent Canal
A Permanent canal is a type of canal in which water is available throughout the year. This type of canal
is generally directed from a permanent source of supply water bodies. Several Permanent hydraulic
structures are constructed in this type of canal for water regulation and distribution. A Permanent canal
can also be called as a perennial canal.
Inundation Canal
Inundation canal is a type of canal in which water is available only during the flood periods. These type
of canals are taken off from rivers to control the water level in rivers during floods. A canal head
regulator is provided to regulate the flow into the canal.
II. Based on Functions of Canal
1. Irrigation canal
2. Power canal
3. Feeder canal
4. Carrier canal
5. Navigation canal
1. Irrigation canal
A canal aligned along the boundaries of cultivatable areas in order to supply water for the purpose of
agriculture is said to be an irrigation canal.
2. Power canal
A canal constructed especially for the generation of hydraulic power is termed as power canal
3. Feeder canal
As the name says, a feeder canal is constructed to feed two or more other canals or branch canals.
4. Carrier canal
A carrier canal is multi-function canal which serves the purposes of both irrigation canal and feeder
canal. It means the carrier canal feeds the other canals as well as provides water for direct irrigation
5. Navigation canal
A canal which is constructed especially for navigational purposes is known as navigation canal.
The water level required in a navigation canal is generally a lot higher to accommodate large ships,
vessels, etc.

III. Based on Type of Boundary Surface of Canal

1. Alluvial canal
2. Non-alluvial canal
3. Rigid Surface canal
1. Alluvial canal
If the canal is excavated in alluvial soils such as silt, sand, gravel, etc. then it is said to be an alluvial
canal
2. Non-alluvial canal
If the boundary surface of the canal is of non-alluvial soils such as loam, clay, rock, etc. then it is
said to be a non-alluvial canal.
3. Rigid Surface canal
Rigid surface canals also come under non-alluvial canals but here the boundary surface of the canal
is lined artificially with a hard layer of lining material such as cement, concrete, stones, etc
IV. Based on Financial Output
1. Protective canal
2. Productive canal
1. Protective Canal
Protective canals are relief work projects which are constructed to protect a particular area from the
shortage of water. The main objective of a protective canal is to fulfill the requirements of cultivators
during the period of famine.
2. Productive Canal
Productive canals are those which will produce enough revenue for its maintenance and running costs
and also to recover the initial investment made on the construction of the canal. It is said to be good if it
recovers 6% of its initial investment per annum.
V. Based on Discharge
1. Main canal
2. Branch canal
3. Major distributary canal
4. Minor distributary canal
5. Field canal
1. Main canal
The main canal takes off directly from a river or reservoir. It carries water in large amounts to feed
the branch and distributary canals. Due to conveying of very high discharge through the main canal
it is not recommended to do direct irrigation from it.
2. Branch Canal
The branch canal takes off from main canals at regular intervals. These canals supply water to major and
minor distributary canals. The discharge of the branch canal is generally over 5 m3/sec. In the case of
branch canals also, direct irrigation is not recommended unless their water carrying capacity is very low.
3. Major Distributary Canal
Major distributary canal takes off from the branch canal or in some cases from the main canal. They
supply water to minor distributaries and field channels. A canal is said to be major distributary when its
discharge lies between 0.25 to 5 m3/sec.
4. Minor Distributary Canal
Minor distributary canal takes off from major distributaries and sometimes directly from branch canals
depending upon the discharge of canals. Their discharge is generally below 0.25 m3/sec. These canals
supply water to the field channels.
5. Field Channels or water courses
Field channels also known as watercourses are small channels excavated by cultivators in the irrigation
field. These channels are fed by the distributary canals and branch canals through canal outlets.

VI. Based on Canal Alignment

1. Ridge canal
2. Contour canal
3. Side-slope canal
1. Ridge Canal
A canal aligned along the ridgeline or watershed line of an areas is said to be ridge canal or watershed
canal. Since it is running at the peak altitude of the area, irrigation on both sides of the canal up to a
larger extent of the area is possible. There is no interception of natural drains on ridge lines hence, no
cross-drainage works are required for this type of canal.
Advantages
 It can command areas on both banks so large area can be brought under cultivation.
 No drainage can intersect watershed and hence the necessary of construction of cross drainage
structures are avoided.
Disadvantages
 The depression in the ridge line may also necessitate construction of canal bridge, siphons.
 In head reach it is not economical to align in ridge.
 If watershed is passing through village or towns this canal may have to leave the watershed for
some distance.
2. Contour Canal
A canal aligned roughly parallel to the contours of the area is called a contour canal. This type of canal
can be seen in hilly regions. Since it is parallel to the contour line, the ground on one side of the canal is
higher and hence irrigation is possible only on the other side of the canal. A contour canal has to pass the
drainage and hence cross drainage works are required to be provided
 Advantages
 It is economical than ridge canal when ridge is very higher than river flows.
 It is suitable for contour farming.
 Disadvantages
It irrigates only one side of the canal so it serves the small area.
As the drainage flow is always a right angle to contours such a canal would have more cross drainage
structures.
3. Side-slope Canal
A canal aligned nearly perpendicular to the contour of the area is called a side-slope canal. It is located
neither on the ridgeline nor on the valley line but is approximately in between them. It is parallel to the
natural drainage line and hence no cross-drainage works are required. The bed slope of side slope canal
is very steep.

Perennial irrigation
In perennial system of irrigation, constant and continuous water supply is ensured to the crop in
accordance with the crop requirements, throughout the crop period. In this system of irrigation, water is
supplied through storage canal head works and canal distribution system.
6.2 Components of Canal Irrigation System
Main Canal:
The main canal is the primary channel that carries water from the source. It is typically large and runs
over a long distance, distributing water to different branches and minor canals.
Branch Canals: These are secondary channels that branch off from the main canal. They distribute
water to different regions or fields, helping to manage and direct the flow of water more efficiently. In
general branch canal also do not carry out any direct irrigation. They usually carry a discharge over 5
cumec (m3/s)
Distributaries:
Smaller channels that branch off from branch canals. These are designed to carry water to individual
farms or plots of land Major and minor distributaries are categorized
Field Channels (Water course):
The smallest channels in the canal irrigation system, field channels carry water from distributaries
directly to the fields. These channels ensure that water reaches every part of the farmland.
Headworks:
Structures located at the head of the canal system, typically where the main canal diverts from the
source. Headworks include dams, barrages, and weirs that control the flow and level of water entering
the canal system.
Regulators and Gates:
These are structures used to control the flow of water within the canal system. Regulators can be used to
adjust water levels, while gates can open or close channels to manage water distribution.
Cross Drainage Works:
Structures that allow canals to cross natural drainage lines, such as rivers, streams, or other canals. These
include aqueducts, siphons, and culverts.
Watercourses:
Channels within fields that help distribute water evenly across the land. These are usually smaller than
field channels and are often temporary.
Outlets:
Structures through which water is released from canals to fields. They are designed to ensure a
controlled flow of water to avoid wastage or flooding.
Drainage Systems:
Channels or pipes that remove excess water from fields to prevent waterlogging. This is crucial for
maintaining the health of the soil and crops.
Protective Works:
Structures like embankments, levees, and retaining walls to protect the canal from floods, erosion, and
breaches.
6.3 Alignment of Canals:
A canal has to be aligned in such a way that it covers the entire area proposed to be irrigated, with
shortest possible length and at the same time its cost including cost of drainage works is minimum. A
shorter length of canal ensures less loss of head due to friction and smaller loss of discharge due to
seepage and evaporation, so that additional area may be brought under cultivation. A canal may be
aligned as a contour canal, a side slope canal or a ridge canal according to the type of terrain and
culturable area.

i. The alignment should have minimum number of cross-drainage structures

ii. The alignment selected should irrigate high command area as far as possible.
iii. The alignment is economical of distributing water in land.
iv. The alignment along watershed in preferred, which in most economical.
v. The length of main canal should be minimum between two points
vi. The alignment should avoid the residential area including houses, temples, roads etc.
vii. The alignment should not contain a greater number of curves,
viii. The alignment of canal should not be made in rocky or on hard strata etc.
ix. The alignment should be passed from balance depth of cutting.
x. Ideal length of canal should be minimum and branches should be economically planned.
Factor affecting canal alignment:
i. Topography
Terrain features and slopes affecting construction ease and cost.
ii. Geology and Soil Conditions
Soil stability and rock formations impacting excavation and seepage.
iii. Hydrology
Proximity to reliable water sources and natural drainage patterns.
iv. Environmental Impact
Minimizing disruption to ecosystems and maintaining water quality.
v. Land Use and Acquisition
Reducing disruption to existing land uses and minimizing land acquisition costs.
vi. Social and Economic Factors
Population density and potential economic benefits.
vii. Technical and Engineering Considerations
Feasibility of construction and ease of maintenance and operation.
viii. Climatic Conditions
Rainfall patterns and seasonal variations affecting water availability.
ix. Regulatory and Legal Constraints
Compliance with environmental laws and land use regulations.
x. Economic Viability
Balancing construction, operation, and maintenance costs with benefits.
xi. Location
xii. Permanent structures
Factor to be considered while designing the canal in hill area
The design criteria of hill irrigation canal are as follows
i. Canal alignment should be along contour
ii. Canal should be avoided in filling part
iii. Large cross-section should be on avoided.
iv. Lining of canal will give good result in long run
v. Covered canal must be provided in landslide area i.e. by providing Hume pipe)
vi. "Using manning’s and Chazy’s equation for design.
Losses of water in canals (seepage of canals and lining)
When water continuously flow through a canal, losses takes place due to seepage, deep percolation and
evaporation. These losses should be properly accounted for, otherwise lesser quantity of water will be
available for agriculture. Water loss in canal can be broadly classified under 3 categories.
i. Evaporation loss
ii. Transpiration loss (through the weeds and vegetation on the bank of the channels)
iii. Percolation loss
(a)Evaporation Losses
The loss due to evaporation is generally a small percentage of total loss in canal. It hardly exceeds 1 to
2 % of total water entering into a canal. The evaporation loss depends upon
(i) Climatic factor:-Temperature, humidity, wind velocity etc.
(ii) Canal factors: -Water surface area, water depths, velocity of flow etc.
Maximum losses in there summer season, when temperature is high and wind velocity are also high.
Similarly, losses are maximum in canals due to wider surface area, swallower water depths and low
velocity. The average evaporation loss per day may vary from 4 mm to 10 mm.
(b) Transpiration Loss
There is a little loss of water through the plants, vegetation and the weeds on the bank of the canal.
However, this can be controlled by keeping the banks clean from the growth of vegetation and the
weeds.

(c) Percolation losses

Percolation loss constitute major portion of loss in a canal. The seepage losses are due to
• Permeability of the soil in the bed and on the banks of the canal
• The depth of the water in the canal
• Velocity of the flow
• Amount of silt in the water
• Temperature of water
• Age of the canal
• The depth of the ground water

Control of canal losses

Canal losses primarily include water loss through seepage, evaporation, and operational inefficiencies.
Here are some strategies to control these losses:
1. Lining the Canal
Concrete Lining: Reduces seepage significantly but can be expensive.
Clay Lining: More cost-effective than concrete and provides a good barrier to water loss, though it
requires maintenance.
Geomembrane Lining: Uses synthetic materials to provide an effective seepage barrier.
2. Reducing Evaporation
Shade Structures: Planting trees or installing shade nets over canals to reduce direct sunlight.
Covering Canals: Using floating covers or solar panels over smaller canals to reduce evaporation and
generate renewable energy.
Narrow and Deep Canals: Designing canals to be deeper and narrower reduces the surface area
exposed to the sun, thereby reducing evaporation.
3. Improving Canal Design
Canal Shape: Designing trapezoidal or parabolic canal cross-sections to optimize water flow and
reduce surface area.
Bank Stabilization: Using vegetation or structural methods to stabilize canal banks, reducing water loss
and erosion.

#Canal Lining:
 Canal lining in the process of reducing seepage loss of irrigation water by adding an
impermeable layer to the edges of the trench.
 It is the process of applying stable surface like concrete, tiles, asphalt etc on the earthen surface
of canal which is direct contact with water. The seepage loss by 2-5% of their original values by
lining the canal.
 Canal linings are also used values to prevent weed growth, which can spread throughout an
irrigation system and reduce waterflow. It also prevents water logging problem around low-lying
areas
Objectives/Needs/Purposes of Canal Lining:
Following are the objectives of canal lining:
 To minimize the seepage loss in canal.
 To increase discharge by increasing velocity.
 To prevent the erosion of bed and side due to velocity. To prevent the maintenances cost of canal.
 To prevent from weed and grass growth.
 Improving Water Quality
 Extending Canal Lifespan
• Advantages of Canal Lining:
The advantages of canal lining are:
 Seepage control.
 Prevention of water logging.
 Increase in canal capacity or velocity.
 Reduction in evaporation amount.
 Smoothness of canal surface.
 Erosion Control
 Enhanced Water Quality
 Reduced Health Risks
 Economic Benefits
 Improved Operational Efficiency
 Less chances of silting.
 Hygienic environment.
 Increase in available head.
 Reduction in weed growth.
 make canal section more stable and durable.
•Dis-advantages of Canal Lining: The dis-advantages of canal lining are:
  High initial investment (3 to 4 times costlier than unlined one)
 Longer construction period.
 Lining being permanent, it is difficult to shift outlet often.
 Difficult to repair and maintenance the damage lining.
 Reduced ground water recharge
 Maintenance cost goes to high.
 Cracks and Damage: Lined canals can develop cracks due to thermal expansion,
contraction, and ground movements, requiring regular inspection and maintenance.
 Vegetation Control: Roots from nearby plants and trees can penetrate and damage the lining.

 Safety in decreased as compared to unlined canal.

 Limited Flexibility

 Permanent Structures: Lined canals are less flexible and more difficult to modify compared
to unlined canals, limiting the ability to adapt to changing water management needs.

 Technical Expertise
 Skilled Labor: Installation and maintenance of lining materials require skilled labor, which
may not be readily available in all regions.

Types of Canal Lining:

The various types of canal lining can be grouped into following:

Three categories:

1. Exposed and hard surface linings:

i. Cement concrete lining
ii. Precast concrete lining
iii. shotcrete lining
iv. Cement mortar lining
v. Hydraulic lining
vi. Brick tile or burnt clay tile lining
vii. Stone blocks or undress stone lining.
viii. Asphaltic concrete lining
2. Buried membrane linings:
i. Sprayed-in-place asphalt membrane lining
ii. Prefabricated asphaltic membrane lining
iii. Polyethylene film and synthetic rubber membrane lining
iv. Bentonite and clay membrane lining.
v. Road oil lining.
3. Earth Lining:
i. Thin compacted earth lining
ii. Thick compacted earth lining
iii. Loosely placed earth lining
 iv. Stabilized soil lining
v. Bentonite soil lining
vi. Soil-cement lining

• Canal lining may be of following types depending upon their properties:

Cement Concrete Lining:

A continuous lining made of a mixture of cement, sand, gravel, and water, offering high strength and
durability for canals and channels. Cement concrete lining in widely accepted as the best impervious
lining. It can resist the effect of scouring and erosion very efficiently."

Lime Concrete Lining:

This living is preferred where hydraulic lime, surkhi and brick, ballast are available in plenty along the
course of the canal. It is less durable as compared to cement concrete lining.

Precast Concrete Lining:

It consists of "precast concrete slab of size 60cm *60cm*5cm which are set along the canal bank and
bed with cement mortar. It is adopted for the canal in full banking.

Cement-Mortar Lining:

The lining is not durable unless protected suitably. A thickness of 2.5cm of cement lining can reduce
seepage losses by 90%. A thin layer of cement and sand mixture applied to the inner surfaces of pipes or
channels to provide a smooth finish and protect against corrosion.

Brick Lining:

The first-class bricks are recommended for the work. The brick lining is preferred because of its low
cost and can be done quickly. Lining made from fired clay tiles or bricks, offering a traditional and
durable solution with good resistance to chemical attacks and weathering.

Shotcrete Lining:

Shotcrete is a mixture of cement and sand in the ratio of 1:4. The lining is preferred for repairing of old
but sound concrete lining. The thickness of shotcrete lining varies from 2.5cm to 5cm. A method where
concrete is sprayed onto a surface at high velocity, used for creating protective linings and reinforcement
in tunnels and slopes.

Sodium Carbonate Lining:

This lining consists of 10% clay and 6% sodium carbonate. The lining is not durable.

Asphalt Lining:
The lining in prepared by spraying asphalt at a high temp. (about 1500°c) on the sub-grade to a thickness
varying from 3mm to 6mm. The lining is very cheap and can control the seepage of water very
effectively, but it can't control the growth of weeds.

Hydraulic Lining:

Typically involves the use of impermeable materials like clay or bentonite to prevent water seepage in
canals, ponds, or reservoirs.

Stone Blocks or Undressed Stone Lining:

Natural stones, either shaped or left rough, used to line channels or embankments, providing stability
and erosion resistance.

Design of Alluvial Canals:

Alluvial Canal:

 The soil which formed by transportation and deposition of silt through the agency of water over a
Course of time is called alluvial soil. The canals excavated through soils are called alluvial
canals.
 for the design of alluvial soil canal, the hypothetical theories given by Kennedy and Lacey are
used for designing the properly functioning canals, we must think to design canal in which
neither scouring nor silting taker. Such canals are known as stable regime canals.

• Regime Canal: A canal is said to be regime if the flow in the canal does not case silting and scouring.
Such state is possible in an ideal canal. The basis for designing an ideal canal, non-silting non-scouring
canal is that whatever silt has entered in the canal at its head in kept in suspension. so that it does not
settle-down and deposit at any point in the canal. Moreover, the velocity of water should be such that it
does not produce local silt by erosion of canal bed and its slope.

•In an alluvial canal, both scouring and silting may occur if the channel is not properly designed.
Therefore, the alluvial canal. should be designed in such a way that neither scouring nor silting occur.
The velocity of which is called critical velocity.

The following two theories are normally used for design of canal in alluvial soil:

#Kennedy's Silt Theory:

R.G. Kennedy in 1895 carried out extensive investigation on some of the canal in the Upper Bari Doab
Canal System (Punjab). From the experiment and observation, he gives the following conclusions:

 . The silt supporting power is proportional to the bed width of stream and no to in wetted perimeter.
 • The silt supporting power is a canal cross-section was mainly dependent upon the generation of
eddies (twists and turns).
• These eddies are generated due to friction of flowing water with canal surface.

↳ He defined the critical velocity and gave a relation between critical velocity to the depth of flowing
water which in valid for Upper Bari Doab Canal (UBDC):

In general,
0.64
V0 = 0.55D

V0= 0.55m D 0.64

Where, V0 = critical velocity of canal (m/s)

D = water depth in canal (m)

m = critical velocity ratio (CVR)

m = 1, for UBDC system

m > 1, for sediments coarser than for UBDC.

m < 1 for sediment finer than for UBDC...

The equation used by Kennedy for design alluvial canals are

• Continuity equation→ Q = Av

• Flow equation such as kutters equation:

V = C√(RS)
•Design Procedure (When Q, M, N, S are given):

Given, Q, M, N &S.

Steps:

i. Assume, trial value of depth 'D'

ii. Critical velocity, V0 = 0.55mD 0.64
iii. With this value of V, find out A using Q = A.V
iv. A = BD + z D2
v. If, z = 0.5:1, A = BD+0.5D2
vi. Equating, Area in step (iii), and find B
vii. Wetted Perimeter:
viii. P = B + D√5 (If, side slope z = 0.5:1)
ix. P = B + 2D √(1+z2) (If, side slope is given).
x. Compute actual velocity ‘V’ from Kutter's formula.
V = C√(RS)

xi. After that,

If, V≅V0, then the assumed length is ok. Otherwise, change the value of depth and repeat the procedure
till the V and V0 comes tend to equal ie. V≅V0.

Where,

 Vo =Critical velocity (m/s)

 R = Hydraulic Mean depth. = A/P
 Q = Discharge of canal (m³/s)
 N= Rugosity constant
 m= Critical velocity ratio.
 S= Bed slope of canal
 A = Cross-sectional area of canal.
 D = Depth of water in canal.
 B= width of canal

Z= side slope of canal

P= wetted perimeter

• Design Procedure [ When Q. m, N & B/D are given]:

Given that, Q, m, N &B/D Ratio.

• steps:

Cross-sectional area, A = BD + z D2 : [B/D=X, B=XD].

If z = 0.5:0.1, (A = BD + 0.5D2].

Critical velocity, V0 = 0.55mD0.64

Continuity Equation, Q = AV0, and find out D and then B from B/D ratio.

Wetted perimeter, P = B + 2D √ (z2 + 1)

If, z = 0.5: 1, P = B + D √ 5

Hydraulics Mean Depth R1 = A/P

Find out, Vo which in V (actual velocity).

Determine, the slope (bed slope) of canal from Kutter's formula:

i-e. V = C√(RS)

Lacey’s Silt Theory

According to Lacey's, the bed width, depth and slope of stable channel is alluvial soil carrying given
discharge and silt load are fixed by natural in channel constructed in alluvium to carry a certain
discharge, there will be scouring and silting the width depth and bed slope will undergo modifications,
till on equilibrium is reached by channel.

Regime channel:

•It in a stable channel having width, depth and bed slope modification by silting and scouring an
equilibrium condition has been attained the regime condition. Hence, an artificially constructed channel
having a certain fixed section and certain fixed slope can behave in regime only if following conditions
are satisfied.

• Discharge in constant.
 Flow is uniform
 Silt charge and silt grade is constant.
 Channel is flowing through a material which can be scoured as easily as it can be deposited and
is of the same grade as its in transported
 silt in kept in suspension by the vertical component of eddies. According to Lacey, the eddies are
generated of the side and bed of channel and support silt. Lacey introduces the factor in called
silt factor f.

f = 1.76 √Mr

where, Mr = average particle size or diameter in mm.

Some equations used by Lacey are as follows:

 V= √(2/5F.R)………………………………………………….i
 Af2 = 140V5 ………………………………………………….ii
• Design Procedure:
#Difference between Kennedy's and Lacey's Theory:

The differences between Kennedy's and Lacey's theory are as follows:

S.N Kennedy's Theory Lacey's Theory

1 It states that silt carried by the flowing It states that the silt carried by the flowing
water is kept in suspension by the water is kept in suspension by the vertical
vertical component of eddies which are component of eddies which are generated from
generated from the bed of the channel. the entire wetted perimeter of canal.
2 Kennedy did not give any flow equation Lacey gave his own flow equation.
but recommended the use of kutters
equation.
3 Kennedy introduced the critical velocity Lacey introduced the silt factor, gives an
ratio (m) for silt grade. equation for its determination for average
particle size
4 Kennedy did not give any formula for Lacey gives his own formula for bed slope.
bed slope.
5 Kutter's equation is used for finding the This theory gives an equation for finding the
mean velocity. mean velocity
6 In this theory, the design in based on This theory does not involve trial and error
trial-and-error method. method.
7 In this theory, there in the relation In this theory, there in the relation between 'V'
between 'V'& 'D' & R.
8 Kennedy's theory is not unique Lacey's theory in unique.

Design of Non-alluvial Canals:

*Non-alluvial Canal:

In non-alluvial channel, the water is clear and therefore no silting problem occurs. Non-alluvial soils are
clay, hard loam or soils, formed as a result of disintegration of rocks.

Non-alluvial channels are considered stable if there is no silt problem in such channels. These channels
are usually designed based on the maximum permissible velocity which the channel boundary surface
can resist without scouring. Mean flow velocity for the design discharge under uniform flow conditions
should be less than permissible flow velocity.
• Design Procedure:

Given

• Discharge (D)
• Maximum permissible velocity (V)
• Manning's Constant (N) / Chazy’s Constant (C).
• Side slope (Z)
• Bed slope (S)

Calculate Cross sectional area.