6.

Water Conveyance and Control Structure

The irrigation network consists of a (main) intake structure or
(main) pumping station, a conveyance system, a distribution
system, a field application system, and a drainage system.
The (main) intake structure, or (main) pumping station, directs
water from the source of supply, such as a reservoir or a river,
into the irrigation system.
The conveyance system assures the transport of water from the
main intake structure or main pumping station up to the field
ditches.
The distribution system assures the transport of water through
field ditches to the irrigated fields.
The field application system assures the transport of water
within the fields.
The drainage system removes the excess water (caused by
rainfall and/or irrigation) from the fields.
Fig. 6.1 An irrigation network
6.1 Main intake structure
The intake structure is built at the entry to the irrigation
system.
Its purpose is to direct water from the original source of
supply (lake, river, reservoir etc.) into the irrigation system.
Fig. 6.2 An irrigation network
6.2 Conveyance and distribution system
The conveyance and distribution systems consist of canals
transporting the water through the whole irrigation system.
Canal structures are required for the control and
measurement of the water flow.
6.2.1 Open channels
An open canal, channel, or ditch, is an open waterway whose
purpose is to carry water from one place to another.
Channels are very important in Engineering projects
especially in Irrigation and Drainage.
Channels used for irrigation are normally called canals;
Channels used for drainage are normally called drains;
Field ditches have smaller dimensions and convey water from
the farm entrance to the irrigated fields.
i. Canal characteristics
Based on the alignment, irrigation canals can be classified
into three:
Contour canal:
is a canal aligned nearly parallel to the contour lines.
However, the canal should have sufficient slope along the
flow in order to produce the required velocity of flow.
Such a canal irrigates only on one side of the canal (lower
side).
Such canals would cross maximum number on natural
drainages.
Watershed canal (ridge canal):
is a canal aligned along the watershed of the area to be
irrigated.
Watershed in this case is the line dividing the total area into
two small sub-catchments within the area.
Irrigation from a watershed canal is possible by gravity on
both sides.
Cross drainage works will be avoided by this alignment as
no natural drainage can cross the natural watershed.
Side slope canal:
is a canal running roughly at right angles to the contour
lines.
Such canals are aligned parallel to natural drainages and will
not cross them.
 Based on the sizes and importance, irrigation canals can be
classified as:
Main (Primary canal):
is a canal at the head of which water inters to it for irrigation.
As a rule no direct irrigation takes place from main canals.
Generally whenever possible, main canals are aligned as
contour canals till it reaches a watershed.
Branch canal:
This is a canal which branches from the main.
Direct irrigation does not take place from these canals as well.
Secondary canals:
These are canals branching either from the primary canals or
branch canals.
Secondary canals convey water for the secondary units in the
command area.
These canals are generally aligned as side slope canal (across
contours).
Direct irrigation seldom occurs from these canals.
Tertiary canals:
These are canals within the tertiary units.
At the head of such canals is the tertiary off-take structure.
Water can directly be taken from these canals for irrigation.
Field canals:
These are small canals located at the head of each farm plot
or field.
Field canals supply directly the irrigated fields (furrows,
basins and borders).
 Design of Irrigation Canal
(On Alluvial and Non-Alluvial Soils)
A channel is said to be designed when its longitudinal and
cross-sectionals are worked out to suit the requirement. Thus
various channel dimensions, bed width, depth, side slopes,
longitudinal slopes, etc are to be fixed in design of irrigation
channels.
Irrigation channels are designed to take maximum required
discharge safely which is called full supply discharges.
Before proceeding with the subject it is essincial to understand
the the following terms:
Hydraulic radius(R): it is called also hydraulic min depth. It is
the ratio of cross sectional area to wetted perimeter.
R=A/Pw
Economical section: For achieving economy of the depth of
excavation is so arranged that the quantity of the earth excavated
from the canal section of just sufficient to construct the banks.
 The best hydraulic section is the one with minimum wetted
perimeter for a given discharge.
The best hydraulic section for a trapezoidal canal is one
when R= y/2.
The bed width/depth ratio, b/y, is usually unity for small
lined trapezoidal canals, and somewhat larger for larger
sections.
The best hydraulic section for rectangular canals is b/d=2.
Critical velocity: When the velocity of water flowing in the
canal is such that no silting or scouring is taking place.
Full supply discharge: the maximum expected flow in the
canal during peak periods of peak flow.
It is the sum of the total irrigation requirement and the
various losses in the conveyance of water
The level of water in the canal at FSD is called full supply
depth(FSL).
Determination of deign discharge
1. Determine the total area irrigated from the canal under
2. Based on the crop water requirement, determine the water
demand for each unit irrigated in l/s/ha;
3. For each outlet in the canal reach, determine the outflow by
multiplying the area by the water requirement;
4. Determine the outflow into the next reach of the canal;
5. Add all the outlet discharges and the outflow into the next
reach of the canal to determine the design discharge of the canal
reach under consideration.
Where A= Area to be irrigated from the outlet
Qi  A * q
q= peak water demand rate (l/s/ha)
The design discharge of the reach is thus,
Q= Q1+Q2+Q3+…+ Qo+ losses
Where: Q1, Q2, Q3…… are outlet discharges
downstream of the reach and Qo outflow into the next reach.
Canal cross section
The design of irrigation canal cross section basically means
fixing appropriate bottom width b, depth of flow d, total depth
and canal side slope w.
The other parameter used in the design canals is the
longitudinal slope S of the canal.
This is bottom slope of the canal along the flow direction.
It is usually fixed before the cross section of the canal is
determined based on the general slope of the ground along the
alignment and the discharge of the canal.
The following bottom slopes can be adopted for preliminary
design of canals:
Large canals, Q > 15 m3/s, ………0.10 to 0.30 ‰
Intermediate canals, ………………0.20 to 0.40 ‰
Small canals, Q < 0.3 m3/s,………..0.30 to 0.50 ‰
 Design of unlined canals
Unlined canals can be classified into two classes based on
the stability of the boundaries of the canal for design purposes:
A. Canals with stable (non-erodible) bed and
B. Canals with erodible bed (Alluvial) with significant
amount of sediments flowing
The design of these two canal types requires different
considerations and different approaches.
A. Design of non-erodible (stable) canals
Non-erodible canals are canals with fairly stable boundary.
The design of such canals should ensure that any sediment
entering into the canal go on flowing and avoid settlement.
The flow velocity however should be in such a way that does
not cause any erosion of the canal boundary.
The dimensions of canal can be work out on the basis of
well known hydraulic formula.
 Generally sides slopes of 1.5:1(horizontal : vertical) in filling
and 1:1 in cutting.
The hydraulic formula/equations commonly used For the design
of such canals are:
1. Q=A.V Where Q= design discharge in m3/s
A=Cross sectional area of the
canal(m2)
V= mean velocity of flow in m/s
2. Chezy’s
V C formula
RS
Where R= Hydraulic mean depth(m)
S= Bed slope of the canal
C= Chezy’s constant
The values of Chezy’s C can be calculated from following
formula
87
a.C Bazin’s formula

K Where R= hydraulic mean radius
1
R K =roughness coefficient (depend on the
b. Manning’s formula
1
1 2 1
R 6
C  , R 6
R S 3 2
n V C RS  * RS  V 
n n
2 1
1
V  .R .S3 2
is called Manning ' s formula
n
Where N=coefficient of rugosity which is depend on
i. Grain size of bed & bank material
ii. Bed shear stress
iii. Depth of water in the canal
c. Ganguillet & Kutter’s formula
1 0.000155
23   Where S= bed slope
C n S
0.000155 n n= rugosity factor
1  ( 23  )
S R
 For the design of such canals, there are two approaches:
i. The recommended (b/d ratio) approach and
ii. The Tractive force (permissible velocity approach)
i. Design of canals on b/d ratio approach
When the Strickler’s ks (ks=1/n) and S are fixed, the highest
flow velocity in a section will occur when the hydraulic radius R
is maximized.
The resulting section for an open channel, known as the best
hydraulic cross section, is a semi-circle.
For a trapezoidal section the best hydraulic section is a semi
hexagon, and for a rectangular section, it is half a square (b = 2 x
d).
 Minimizing the wetted perimeter by equating the first
derivative on d to zero results in a ‘best’ hydraulic cross
section if:
 
b 2 1  z 2 0.5  z
d

Table: Side slopes in canals; z = cotangent of side slope

Material z
Rock 0
Stiff clay 0.5
Cohesive medium soils 1.0-1.5
Sand 2
Fine sand, porous clay,
soft peat 3
 Recommended values for z and b/d for unlined irrigation
canals constructed in earth (cohesive medium soils) as related to
the design discharge of the canal Q are as follows:

Q (m3/s) 0.2 0.2 – 0.5 0.5 – 10.0 >10.0

z 0.8 - 1 1 – 1.5 1.5 - 2 >2

b/d 1 1.76 * Q0.35

In most small and medium size earth canals, the freeboard

varies from 50% to 60% of the depth d, with a minimum of 0.15
or 0.20 m.
 ii. The Design of canals on Tractive force (permissible
velocity approach)
a. Design of canals on Tractive force
Tractive force or shear force is the force applied by the flowing
water on the canal bed and sides in the direction of flow. This
force per unit area is called Unit tractive force or shear stress.

ρ.g.L.sin θ

W= ρ.g.A.
L
 Considering a canal reach of length L and canal cross
sectional area A, the volume of water stored in the canal reach
is,
V= A*L and weight of this water is = ρ.g.A.L= ɣ.A.L.
The component of this weight in the flow direction is
= ɣ.A.L. sin θ = ɣ.A.L.S where S is the canal slope. This
component is called tractive force.
The ratio of this force to the wetted area of flow is the shear
stress (Τo).
Shear stress = Tractive force  ALS .R.S
Wetted area Wetted P * L

Where R is the hydraulic radius.

 b. Design of unlined canals on Permissible velocity approach
Depending on whether there is a non-erodible or an erodible
canal, a permissible velocity can be used as criteria for the
design of canals.
A minimum permissible velocity is that which will not start
sedimentation or induce the growth of aquatic plants.
It is determined by the sediment transport capacity of the
flow.
A maximum permissible velocity is that which will not cause
erosion of the canal.
Maximum permissible velocities are given depending on the
kind of bed material.
The following table shows maximum permissible velocities
and the corresponding unit-tractive force values converted by
the U.S Bureau of Reclamation.
 Clear water Loaded water

Material Velocity, m/s Tc (N/m2) Velocity, m/s Tc (N/m2)

Fine sand, 0.46 1.3 0.76 3.61
Sandy loam, 0.53 1.78 0.76 3.61
Silt loam, 0.61 2.31 0.91 5.29

Alluvial silts, 0.61 2.31 1.07 7.22

Volcanic ash 0.76 3.61 1.07 7.22
Stiff clay, 1.14 12.51 1.52 22.13

Alluvial silts, 1.14 12.51 1.52 22.13

Problem 1: Assuming the side slope 1:1 find the bed width B
and depth of flow D of an irrigation canal to carry a discharge of
21 m3/s with a velocity of 0.75m/s. Bed slope is 1:5000 and
values of chezy’s constant C=42.
Solution
Using equation Q= AV
A=Q/V= 21/0.75=28m2 d 1
A=(B+D)*D 1
28= (B+D)*D b
Wetted Perimeter(Pw)=B+2D.√2
A 28
R  ...........(1)
P B  2D 2

Using Chezy’s 1
V C RS  0.75 42 R*
5000
 R 1.59m.......... ...( 2)
 28 28
R 1.59   B  2D 2
B  2D 2 1.59
B 17.6  2 D 2
Substituting values of B in equation A
28=(17.6-2D√2+D)*D
28=(17.6-1.828D)D or
1.828D2-17.6D+28=0 It is quadratic equation in D.
 17.6  17.6 2  4 *1.828 * 28
D 
2 *1.828
17.6 10.25
7.63 & 2.01
3.656
Taking D=7.63 , B=17.6-7.63*2.828 = -3.95m which is
absurd
Taking D=2.01m, B=17.6-2.01*2.828 = 11.93m
Hence, d=2m and b=12m
Problem 2: Design the section of an unlined canal in a loamy
soil to carry a discharge of 50 cubic meter per second with
permissible velocity of one meter per second. Assume side slope
2:1 and B/D ratio as 6. Using Manning formula calculate bed
slope of the canal. Take n=0.0225.
Solution
Using fundamental equation Q= AV
A=Q/V=50/1=50m2
A=(B+2D)D or 50 = (B+2D)D
Pw=B+2√5*D d 1
B/D=6 or B=6D 2
b
Substituting B in to A
50=(6D+2D)D=8D2
Þ D=2.5m
B=6D=6*2.6= 15m
Slope from Manning formula
2 1
1 3 2
V  .R .S
n
From Continuity formula
A 50 50
R   1.91m
Pw 15  2 * 5 * 2.5 26.18
Substitute the value of R in to V
2 1 1
1 1.5
1 * (1.91) * S 
3 2
4* S 2
0.0225 0.0225
0.0225) 2
S (
1.54
1
S
4740
 B. Design of erodible (Alluvial) canals
Erodible canals are canals with movable bed.
In canals designed on erodible (alluvial deposits) not only
have erosion problem but also in most cases the water
carries sediments with it.
The design of such canals can be made based on the
maximum and minimum permissible velocities.
This velocity which does not cause theoretically erosion
of the bed and that does not silt the canals is called non-
silting and non-scouring velocity.
However, experience showed that alluvial canals
designed on the principle of maximum and minimum
permissible velocities have not functioned satisfactorily.
Regime channels
Canals designed for non-silting and non-scouring velocity
are called regime canals.
A channel is in state of regime means that whatever
sediment entering the canal at the head is kept in suspension
so that it will not settle and local sediments are not produced
by erosion of the canals beds.
Thus design of canals on alluvial deposits requires design
of the canal for non-silting and non-scouring velocity.
There are two researchers called R.G. Kennedy and Lacey
from India who have done a remarkable research for finding
a solution for design of stable (non-silting and non-scouring)
alluvial canals.
Kennedy’s Theory
Kennedy selected some straight reach of a canal which had not
caused serious silting and scouring for the previous more than 30
years.
He concluded that whether a sediment particle will be kept in
suspension or will settle down is a function of generation of
eddies that rise to the surface.
He mentioned that if the velocity of flow is sufficient to
generate eddies that are just sufficient to keep the sediment just
in suspension, silting do not occur.
According to Kennedy, a critical velocity is the velocity which
will just keep the canal free from silting and scouring.
0.64
Vo 0.55.m.D
Where, Vo is critical velocity(m/s)
D is Full supply depth (m)
 m is C.V.R or V
Constant 0.55 Viso depend on characteristic of silt
Constant 0.64 is also depends on type of silt
When designing an irrigation canal by Kennedy theory, the
following equations can be used:
0.64
1. Vo 0.55.m. y
2. Q=A.V
3. V C RS
Procedure for design of regime canals on Kennedy’s theory
1. Assume a trial depth of flow y and determine the critical
velocity Vo;
2. Determine the area of flow, A from A=Q/Vo;
3. Workout the canal cross sectional parameters(B, R…);
4. Calculate the actual mean velocity V in the canal from the
Kutter’s formula, Manning’s formula or Chezy's equation;
Compare V and Vo, If the same, the assumed depth of flow y is
right if not the same assume another y and repeat steps 1 to 4.
Kutter’s Formula  1  0.00155  
 n   23  S  
V     * RS
Where: V is flow velocity, m/s  
1   23 
0.00155  n 
 *
R is Hydraulic radius, m   S  R 
S is Slope of the canal
n is roughness coefficient
Problem 3: Design an irrigation canal for the following data:
Use Kennedy’s equations.
FS discharge=14m3/s
Bed slope=1 in 5000
Kutter’s n=0.0225
C.V.R(m)=1
Side slope = ½ : 1(Horizontal : Vertical)
Solution:
1. Assume full supply depth=1.78m
0.64 0.64
Vo 0.55.m. y 0.55 *1*1.78 0.795m / s
2. A=Q/V = 14/0.795 = 17.6m2
3. Calculate canal dimensions
A = BD + D2/2
= B*1.78+3.17/2 = 17.60 that is B=9.0m
Pw =B+D*√5
= 9.0 + 1.78*√5 = 12.98m
 A 17.6
R  1.36m
Pw 12.98
Chezy’s constant can be calculated from Kutter’s formula:
 1  0.00155    1 0. 000155 
 23  n   23  S    23   
C      0. 0225 0 .0002  46.8
 1   23  0.00155  * n   1   23  0.000155  * 0.0225 
  
S  R      
0.0002  1.36 

4. Using Chezy’s calculate actual velocity:

V C RS 46.8 1.36 * 0.0002 0.772m / s
Thus this velocity come out to be slightly less than velocity
obtained from Kennedy’s equation. Hence one more trials with
smaller depth will give fairly closes result.
Therefore take D=1.712m and B=9.76m
Problem 4: Design an irrigation canal Using Kennedy’s
equations from the following data:
FS discharge=50m3/s
Kutter’s n=0.0225
C.V.R(m)=1
Side slope = ½ : 1(Horizontal : Vertical)
B/D ratio = 10.5
Assume any other data required suitably.
Solution:
Step 1 : Using Kennedy’s equation
V 0.55.m. y 0.64 0.55 *1* D 0.64 0.55D 0.64 .......... (1)
B = 10.5D
Step 2
A=BD+D2/2 = 10.5D2 + 0.5D2=11D2
Step 3 (Using continuity equation)
Q = A*V = 11D2 *V = 50, that is V = 50/11D2
V = 50/11D2………………………………..(2)
Step 3
Equating (1) and (2)
0.55D0.64 = 50/11D2 1
1
 50  2 . 64
8.325 2.23m
2.64
D  
 0.55 *11 
B = 10.5*2.23 = 23.4m

V = 0.912m/s
A 11D 2 11D 2 11D 2 11 * 2.23
R     1.926m
Pw B  D * 5 10.5D  2.236D 12.736D 12.736
Step 5: Using Chezy’s Equation calculate longitudinal slope(S)
V C RS  0.912 C RS
C can be calculated from Basin’s formula
87
C 
K
1
R
Assuming K=1.3 from table
87
C 44.95
1.3
1
1.926
V C RS
0.912 44.95 1.926 S
Squaring both sides D=2.23
1
0.832 2020.5 *1.926 * S 0.5
0.832 1 B=23.4
S  
3891.5 4677
Lacey’s Regime Theory
Lacey also states that the silt is kept in suspension solely by
force of eddies. But also Lacey adds that eddies are not only
generated on the bed but at all points on the wetted perimeter.
Unlike Kennedy, Lacey takes hydraulic radius R as a variable
rather than depth D.
Lacey also argued that med material size is an important
parameter to be considered.
As a result, he introduced a silt factor (f) which is a function
of the mean particle size.
Procedure for design of regime canals on Lacey’s Theory
1. Evaluate the flow velocity from V 0.4382(Qf 2 ) 16
Where V is in m/s
Q is design discharge in m3/s
f is silt factor, f 1.76 * d, where d is mean particle size, mm
2. Determine the hydraulic radius, R from
V2 
R 2.46 *  
 f 
A Q
3. Calculate the area of flow V
4. Calculate wetted perimeter, P
P 4.825 * Q
5. Workout D and B from the known, A, P and R.
6. Compute the canal bed slope, S
 f 3 
5

S  1

 3316.Q 6 
Problem 5: Design an irrigation canal Using Lacey’s theory
from the following data:
FS discharge=14m3/s
f=1
Side slope = ½ : 1(Horizontal : Vertical)
Coefficient of rugosity, n=0.0225
Assume any other data required suitably.
Solution:
Step 1 : Calculate mean velocity
1
1
V 0.4382(Qf 2 ) 6 2 6
0.4382 * (14 *1 ) 0.68m / s
Step 2 Determine the hydraulic radius, R from
V2 0.682
R 2.46 * 2.46 * 1.14m
f 1
Step 3 Calculate wetted perimeter, P
Pw 4.825 * Q 4.825 * 14 18.04m
Step 4 Calculate the area of flow
A R * Pw 1.14 *18.04 20.55m 2
Step 5 Workout D and B from the known, A, P and R.
A=BD+0.5D2
20.55 = BD+0.5D2
D=2.23
P=B+D√5 =
1
18.06 = B + D√5 Hence, B=18.06- D√5 0.5
Putting values of B and A B=23.4
20.55 = (18.06- D√5)D + 0.5D2
20.55 = 18.06D – 1.73D2
1.73D2 – 18.06 + 20.55 = 0
By using quadratic equation:
 18.06  18.06 2  4 *1.73 * 20.55
D 
2 *1.73
18.06 13.56
9.13 & 1.3m
3.46
Taking D=9.13m, B=18.08-2.23*9.13 = -2.14 is absurd
Taking D=1.3m, B=18.08-2.23*1.3 = 15.15m
Hence taking D=1.3m and B = 15.15m
The value of D & B can be utilize to calculate hydraulic
radius and compare it with already calculated from Lacey.
A 15.15 *1.3  (1.3) 2 20.54
R   1.14m
Pw 15.15  5 *1.3 18.05
Step 6 Compute the canal 5 bed slope, S
 f 53  13 1 1
S  1
 1
 
 3316.Q 6  3316 *1.553 5160
3316 * (14) 6

Answer: F.S depth 1.3m, bed width 15.15m and bed slope 1
in 5160.
Problem 5: Design an irrigation canal Using Lacey’s theory
when following data is given:
Mean diameter of silt particles=0.33mm
Longitudinal slope of channel=1 in 6000
Side slope = ½ : 1(Horizontal : Vertical)
Coefficient of rugosity, n=0.0225
Assume that for the given slope maximum discharge the canal
has to carry under regime conditions.
Solution:
Step 1 Silt factor
f 1.76 * d m
1.76 * 0.33 1.0
Step 2 Determine design discharge
 f 3 
5

S  1

 3316.Q 6 
 
 3316 * S 
Q 35.1cumec
 5 
 f 3 
Step 3 Mean velocity
1
1
V 0.4382(Qf 2 ) 6 2 6
0.4382 * (35.1*1 ) 0.793m / s
Step 4 Determine hydraulic radius
V2 0.7932
R 2.46 * 2.46 * 1.54m
f 1

Pw 4.825 * Q 4.825 * 35.1 28.59m

Step 4 Cross sectional area
A= R*PW
= 1.54m*28.59m=44.05m2
A=BD+0.5D2
44.05 = BD + 0.5D2
PW = B + D√5
28.59 = B + D√5  B = 28.59 – 2.23D
44.05 = (28.59 – 2.23D )D + 0.5D2 = 28.59D -1.73D2
1.73D2 – 28.59D+44.02=0
 28.59  28.59 2  4 *1.73 * 20.55
D 
2 *1.73
28.59 22.64
14.8m & 1.72m
3.46
Taking D=14.80m, B=28.59 - 2.23*14.8 = -4.5 is absurd
Taking D=1.72m, B=28.59 - 2.23*1.72 = 24.75m
Hence taking D=1.72m and B = 24.75m
These value of D & B can be utilize to calculate value of
R. A 24.75 *1.72  (1.72) 2
R  1.54m
Pw 24.75  5 *1.72

Thus values of R is equal to the value calculated in step 4

above.