ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to express my special thank of gratitude to our teacher

Mrs. Zeba Ma’am to give us the opportunity to make this project on

the topic entitled “The Enemy”. My project supervisor has always

given me valuable suggestion and guidance during the completion of

this project. She has been a source of inspiration to me during the

completion of my project work and I came to know about many new

things. So, I’m very thankful to her.

Signature

1
 DECLARATION

I am Kavita Sonkar D/O Mr. Satish Sonkar [Link]. student in

Department of Mathematics, Mahatma Gandhi Kashi Vidyapith,

Varanasi. I hereby declare that this research project entitled “Local

Ring” Submitted to Dr. Varun Kumar which was done by me and

performed at Department of Mathematics. This research work is

original and based on my personal knowledge and research.

Signature………………
Name…………………..
Father's name…………..

2
 Introduction

The concept of Local Ring was introduced by “Wolfgang Krull” in

1938 under the name “Stellenringe”. The English term local ring is

due to Zariski.

Here defined a “Stellenringe” as a Notherian ring with only one

maximal ideal a notherian ring is commutative ring with units which

satisfies the maximum condition for ideals.

Before about 1960 many authors required that a local ring be (left and

right) Noetherian and (Possibly non-notherian) local ring were called

quasi-local rings. A local ring that is an integrated domain is called a

local domain.

3
 Review of Literature

We recall that a local ring R is a commutative notherian ring with

identity, having a unique maximal ideal m. The dimension of the local

ring R is the longest integer d for which a strictly descending chain of

prime ideals

M = x0 ⊃ x 1⊃ x 2 ⊃…..⊃ x d

of length d exists since R is Noetherian, all ideals of R are finitely

generated.

In particular, m is finitely generated and according to Krull’s principal

required to generate m is always greater than or equal to dim R (the

dimension of R). If m can be generated by precisely d= dim R,

elements R is said to be a regular ring.

4
 Objectives of Research

1. A commutative ring R is local if and only if whenever x and y

are non-units so is x+y. [Equivalently, if x+y is a unit, then

either x or y is a unit.]

2. Let R be a commutative ring and I be a primary ideal. Then R\I

is a local ring.

3. A finite module M over a Noetherian ring R is a Noetherian

module.

4. If a ring R´ is generated by a finite number of elements over a

Noetherian ring R then R´ is Noetherian. (HILBERTS BASIS

THEOREM).

5
Chapter-1

Introduction

Methodology

Definition 1.1. A commutative ring R is said to be local if it has a

unique maximal ideal.

Definition 1.2. Let A be any ring. If A has exactly one maximal ideal

M then A is called a local ring. The field A/M is called the residue

field of A.

Note: A proper ideal A (A≠R) of a ring R is said to be maximal ideal

of R if whenever B is an ideal of R and A⊆ B⊆ R, then B=A or B=R.

Definition 1.3. An element a in a ring R is said to be

1) Invertible or a unit, if there exists an element b ϵ R such that a.b

=1

2) Nilpotent if there exists a positive number n ϵ z ≥ 0 such that an

=0

3) Idempotent if a2 = a

6
Lemma:- Let R be a ring, all of whose non-invertible elements are

nilpotent, then R is a local ring.

Unital and non-unital ring

A ring in which there is an identity element for multiplication is

called an unital ring, unitary ring or simply ring with identity. The

identity element is generally denoted 1.

A non-unital ring is a set R with operations of addition and

multiplication such that R is a semi group under multiplication, R is

an abelian group under addition; multiplication distributes over

addition.

Propostion 1.2.1. (i) Let A be a ring and M be a non-unital ideal in A

such that x ϵ A-m is a unit then M is the only maximal ideal in A i.e.,

A is local.

(ii) Let A be a ring and M is a maximal ideal in A such that every

element of the form 1+m, m ϵ M is a unit in A then A is local.

7
Proof (i) Let I be any ideal (non-unital) in A. Therefore, I consists of

the non-units in A. Hence I ⊆ M. Since all the non-unit are inside M.

Hence, M is the only maximal ideal in A. Hence, A is local.

(ii) Let x ϵ A-M. Therefore, the ideal generated by x and M is the

unital ideal, since M is maximal and ⟨ x , M ⟩ ⊋ M .

i.e., ⟨ x , M ⟩ = (1)

therefore, ∃ y ϵ A s.t. xy +t=1

where t ϵ M i.e., xy=1−t .

Therefore, by hypothesis xy is a unit in A.

Thus, ∃ z ϵ A such that

( xy ) z =1 or x ( yz )=1

Therefore, x is also a unit in A. Hence by (i) M is the only maximal

ideal in A.

Proposition 1.2.2. Let an R be a local ring. Then every element in an

R is either invertible or nilpotent.

8
Proof:- Suppose that an R is a local ring and let a be a non-invertible

element in R. Since, 1-a is invertible that is there exists u in R such

that (1-a) u = 1, and that can be held when

U = 1+a+a2+………………+an-1 ϵ R and

(1-a) (1+a+a2+………….+an-1) = 1 but

1-an = (1-a) (1+a+a2+…….+an-1) = 1

Hence, an=0 and therefore, a is nilpotent element.

Note that every non-zero commutative ring has at least one maximal

ideal indeed we can sake the collection ∑ of all ideals of R not

containing 1. Zorn’s lemma provides a maximal element I in ∑ which

does not contain 1 and is maximal.

Corollory- Let and R be a local ring, then

N(R) = J(R)

Proof- Let 0 ≠ a ϵ J(R), Then a is non-invertible element. Thus by

(previous prop.) a is nilpotent element.

i.e., a ϵ N(R). Therefore, J(R) ⊂ N(R)

9
it is clear that N(R) ⊂ J(R)

Therefore, N(R) = J(R).

Remark- If an R is a local ring, then J(R) is nilideal.

Definition 1.4. A left (or right) ideal A in a ring R is called a nil ideal

if each element of A is nilpotent.

Lemma:- If R is a commutative local ring with maximal ideal M,

then its complement R-M is the set of units in R.

Proof:- If x ϵ R is a unit, it cannot be contained in the proper ideal M

so it must lie in R-M. Conversely, if x ϵ R is not a unit the ideal Rx is

properly contained in R so it is contained in a maximal ideal.

But since there’s only one maximal ideal we have,

Rx ⊆ m , so xϵM and

We have, x ϵ R−M .

Remark- Note that since every proper ideal is contained in a maximal

ideal. If is a local ring with maximal idela m then Ax = A\m.

10
Chapter-2

Local Ring

A ring R is called a quasi-semi-local ring if it has only a finite number

of maximal ideals it is called a quasi-local ring if it has only one

maximal ideal.

A Noetherian quasi-semi-local ring is called a semi-local ring; a

Noetherian quasi-local ring is called a local ring.

Definition 2.1. A ring R is said to be a local ring if only one of the

following conditions holds-

1) R has a unique maximal right ideal.

2) R has a unique maximal left ideal.

3) R/J(R) is a division ring.

4) R/U(R) is an ideal of R (all non-invertible elements of R from a

proper ideal) i.e., J(R) is the all non-invertible elements of R.

5) R\U(R) is a group under addition.

6) For any n, a1+a2+…….. an Uϵ (R) implies that some ai ϵ U (R).

11
 7) a+b ϵ U (R) implies that a ϵ U(R) or b ϵ U(R).

Examples:-

1) All fields (and skew fields) are local rings since {0} is the only

maximal ideal in these rings.

2) The ring Z /pn Z is a local ring

( P prime,n ≥ 1)

The unique maximal ideal consists of all multiples of P.

3) More generally a non-zero ring in which every element is either

a unit or nilpotent is a local ring.

4) An important class of local rings are discrete valuation rings

which are local principal ideal domain that are not fields.

5) Non-zero quotient rings of local rings are local.

Local Rings are Local Ring

In commutative algebra, any ring R with the property that R\R x is an

ideal is called a local ring.

12
Let R denote a local ring in this sense and put m=R\R x, then m is

clearly a maximal ideal because you cannot enlarge this ideal properly

adding a unit means you will get (1) as a result.

Proposition 2.2.1. The ring Op (Cf) is a local ring. Its maximal ideal

is the set of all functions vanishing at P: m = { g ϵ Op ( C f ) :g ( P )=0 }.

Proof- Consider the evaluation map

Op (Cf ) K :g g (P) with kernal m. From algebra we know that if ϕ : R

S is a ring homomorephism,

Then R/Kerϕ ≃imϕ .

In our situation this gives Op(Cf)/m ≃ k Since evalution is clearly

surjective (evaluating the constant function a ϵ k at P gives a). But this

a
implies that m is maximal. Moreove, every g = b ϵ Op(Cf )\m is a unit

since a(P) ≠ 0

1 b
Implies that =
g a is defined at P.

Thus Op(Cf) is indeed a local ring with maximal ideal m.

13
The situation is analogous to the following for each prime P in Z

define the ring Z P¿ {ba ϵ Q: P ∤ b}.This is a local ring, since the nonunits are
a
those elements b with P/a and they from an ideal (P)= P Z (p) (the

multiplies of P) we clearly have Z = ∩p Z (p).

The analog of the evaluation map is reduction modulo P, if P ∤b then

a
g(P) = b mod P is a well defined residue class module P.

This is not really a function since the domain depends on the point at

which it is evaluated but this is the best we can do. The kernel of the

a
evaluation map is the set of all b
ϵZ (p) with P|a that is, the ideal (P)

⊂ Z (p). It is a maximal ideal in Z (P) because Z (p)/( P)≃ Z /P Z is a field.

The ring Z (P) have all the properties of our local rings O p(cf) : the

analog of the coordinate ring is Z, the points Pϵ Cf correspond to the

prime ideals in Z and the local rings Op(Cf) to the local rings Z (P).

Every ideal in this ring has the from (Pa) for some a ≥ o.

The means that-

 R is Noetherian: every ideal is finitely generated.

14
  R is a local ring: every ideal ≠ (1) is contained in the unique

maximal idela m = (P).

 The unique maximal ideal m = (P) is principal.

Noetherian Ring

Definition 2.2. A Noetherian ring is a ring that satisfies the

ascending chain condition on left and right ideals, if the chain

condition is satisfied only for left ideals or for right ideals then the

ring is said left-noetherian or right-noetherian respectively.

That is every increasing sequence

I1 ⊆ I2 ⊆ I3 ⊆ ……… of left (or right) ideals has a largest element i.e,

there exists an n such that

In = In+1 = …………….

Definition 2.3. An ideal I of a ring R is finitely generated if there is a

finite subset A of R such that I = ⟨ A ⟩ .

Example:- Every principal ideal is finitely generated.

15
Proposition 2.2.2. A ring R is Noetherian if and only if every ideal in

R is finitely generated.

Proof:- Let R be a commutative ring Recall that R is said to be

Noetherian if every ascending chain of ideals of R stabilizes i.e.,

if I1 ⊆ I2 ⊆ …….. where each Ik is an ideal of R then In =

In+1=…………. for same n. Equivalently, R is Noetherian if and only

if every ideal of I of R is finitely generated. i.e.,

n
I =∑ R a i
i=1

for some positive integer n and some aiϵ R

Corollary:- Principal ideal domains are Noetherian.

Proposition 2.2.3. If I is an ideal in a Noetherian ring R then R/ I is

Noetherian.

Proof:- Assume that I is an ideal in R\ I .

Define A= { r ϵR :r + I ϵ J }.

This is an ideal in R hence it is finitely generated

say A = { a1 , a 2 , … … . am }.

16
We claim that for ri ϵ R hence

a + I = r1 (a1+ I ) + ………. + rm (am + I ).

Proposition 2.2.4. A ring R is Noetherian if and only if R is M-

Noetherian for every maximal ideal M of R.

Proof:- The “Only if” part is clear. For the converse, let I be an ideal

of R. By hypothesis for every maximal ideal M of R there exists SMϵ

R\M and a finitely generated sub ideal F M of I such that SM I⊆ FM. The

elements SM generate the unit ideal so the same is true for some finite

subset { S M 1 , … … . S Mn }. of them. Then I = ( S M 1 , … … . S Mn ) I ⊆ FM1 +

………….+ FMn ⊆ I.

Hence I = FM1 + ………… + FMn is finitely generated.

As an example of a ring that is not Noetherian.

Consider the polynomial ring

R= Q [ X 1 , X 2 , X 3 ,… … ] of infinitely many variables. The ideal (X2, X3,

……..) in R is not finitely generated alternatively the sequence

(X1) ⊊ (X1, X2) ⊊ (X1, X2, X3) ⊊ ………… is an ascending chain of

ideals that does not terminate.

K = Q (X1, X2, X3,………) is Noetherian (any field is); Since R is a

subring of K this shows that not every subring of a Noetherian ring is

Noetherian. Actually even the sandwich argument dose not word for

Noetherian rings.

We have Q ⊂ R ⊂K with Q and K Noetherian and yet R is not.

A big source of Noetherian rings are polynominal rings K [ X 1,

………..,.Xn].

Discrete Valuation Rings

Definition 2.4. A ring R is a discrete valuation a ring if R is a

Noetherian local ring whose maximal ideal is principal.

The reason for this name is that we can define a function v: R\{ 0 } → N

by putting v (r) = n for r = utn

This function has the following properties-

1) v(r) ≥ 0 for all r ϵ R (even for r=0 if you put v(0) = ∞ ).

18
 2) v(r) ≥ 1 if and only if r ϵ M

v(r) = 0 if and only if r is a unit.

3) v(rs) = v(r) + v(s) for all r, s ϵ R

4) v(r+s) ≥ min. {v(r), v(s)}.

The proofs are almost trivial, let us look at the last one and write

r = utn , s = vtm

If n < m, then v(r+s) = n=min. {v(r), v(s)}.

If n = m, then v(r+s) ≥ n.

Proposition 2.2.5. Let R be a domain which is not a field then the

following statement are equivalent.

1) R is a Noetherian local ring whose maximal ideal is principal.

2) There is an irreducible element t ϵ R such that every nonzero r ϵ

R can be written uniquely in the form r=utn, where uϵ Rx is a unit

and n ≥ 0 some integer.

As an example consider the ring R = Z (p). Here every nonzero

element r ϵ R has the form r = uPa for some u ϵ Rx. If R is a field then

its only ideals are (0) and (1), so every field is Noetherian. Also, (0) is

19
a maximal ideal since R/(0)≃R is a field, hence fields are local rings

whose maximal ideals are principal.

Proof:- Assume that R is a Noetherian local ring whose maximal

ideal is principal, say m= (t). Let r ϵ R be a nonunit this implies that r

ϵ m hence r= r1t.

If r1ϵ Rx, we are done otherwise r1 = r2t and we can continue.

Assume this process does not stop. Then we have a chain of ideals

(r1) ⊂ (r2) ⊂ …………., since R is Noetherian this chain must

terminate say (rn) = (rn+1). But then rn+1 and rn differ by a unit

contradicting our construction.

Thus the process terminates and we have r = ut n for some unit u and

some interge n ≥ 0.

Assume now that utn = vtm for units u, vϵ Rx, then utn-m = v is a unit

hence n = m and u = v.

Thus the representation is unique.

20
Now assume that every non-zero element has the form r = ut and let

m = (t). Every element in R\m is a unit, hence R is local. Let a be any

ideal in R, if a ≠ (1), it is contained in the maximal ideal m.

Let n be the maximal integer with a ⊆ mn and define b = {aϵ R: tn a ϵ

a} this is an ideal with a = b(tn).

We claim that b = (1) infact, there is some a ϵ a with a = utn for some

unit u, otherwise a ⊆ mn+1.

But then uϵ b. This shows that every nonzero ideal in R has the form

(tn) for some n ≥ 0, in particular every ideal is finitely generated.

Valuation Rings

Definition 2.6. A ring R is a valuation ring if R is an integral domain

such that for any two element a, b of R ; it holds that either aR ⊆ bR

or bR ⊆ aR. When K is the field of quotients of a valuation ring R.

We say that R is a valuation ring of K.

Proposition 2.2.6. Let R be a valuation ring.

1) If a is an ideal of R and if bϵ R is not in a then a ⊂ bR. If p is a

prime ideal of R then

21
 2) R/P is a valuation ring and

3) P is set – theoretically equal to PRp.

Proof:- If a ϵ a then aR ⊂ bR (because bR ⊈ aR) which implies (1).

(2) is therefore immediate from the defn. Let q be any element of PRp.

Then there is an element a of R which is not in p and such that p = aq

is in p since a ∉ p, PR ⊂ aR by (1) and we have q ϵ R. Since aq ϵ p, we

have qϵ P which proves (3).

Definition 2.7. A ring R is regular provided that for every x ϵ R there

exists yϵR such that xyx=x .

For example, any direct product of division ring is regular.

Theorem 1.3.1. For a ring R, the following conditions are equivalent.

a) R is regular.

b) Every principal right (left) ideal of R is generated by an

idempotent.

c) Every finitely generated right (left) ideal of R is generated by an

idempotent.

Proof:- (a) ⇒ (b): Given x ϵ R there exists yϵR such that xyx=x .

22
Then xy is an idempotent in R such that xyR=xR .

(b) ⇒ (c): If suffices to show that xR+ yR is principal for any x , y ϵ R.

Now xR =e R for some idempotent e ϵ Rand since y−ey ϵ xR+ yR .

We see that xR+ yR=eR+ ( y−ey ) R . There is an idempotent f ϵ R such that

f R = ( y−ey ¿ R and we note that ef = 0. Consequently, g = f-fe is an

idempotent orthogonal to e.

Observing that fg = g and gf = f we see the gR = f R = ( y−ey ) R hence

xR+ yR=eR+ gR . In as much as e and g are orthogonal. We conclude that

(c) ⇒ (a) : given x ϵ R there exits an idempotent e ϵ R such that eR=xR .

Then e=xy for some yϵR and x = ex = x yx.

Expected Outcomes

23
Proposition 2.3.1. A commutative ring R is local if and only if

whenever x and y are non-units so is x + y .

[Equivalently, if x + y is a unit, then either x or y is a unit.]

Proof:- Suppose R is local with maximal ideal M. The above lemma

says M is precisely the set of non-units of R.

Thus this set is closed under addition. Conversely, let M be the set of

non-units of R and assume ( x , y ϵM ⇒ x+ y ϵ M ¿. We claim that M is an

ideal.

First it is closed under addition by condition. Next, if x ϵ M,y ϵ R we

claim xy ϵ M , indeed if not xy is a unit so both x and y are units

(contradiction). So the set of non-units of R is an ideal. On the other

hand, every x ϵ R-M is a unit so cannot be contained in a maximal

ideal. This shows that M is the unique maximal ideal of R.

Proposition 2.3.2. Let R be a commutative ring and I be a primary

ideal. The R\I is a local ring.

24
Proof:- Suppose that ā = (a+I) is for every a ϵ R. To prove that R\I is

a local ring. It is enough to show that R\I has exactly two idempotent

elements which are ō and 1̅

Let a ϵ R such that ā be a non-zero idempotent element of R\I, we

have a2 – a ϵ I. Since, I is a primary ideal of an R and a ∉ I, then there

exists a non-negative integer n such that (a-1)n ϵ I.

By the binomial theorem (which is valid in any commutative ring).

n
( a−1 ) =∑ (−1 )
n

k =0
n−k
(nk) a ϵ I
k

Now, we prove by mathematical induction, first we claim that for

each k ≥ 2 ak = a+ x ¿k-2)

Indeed, it is certainly true for K = 2 i.e., a2 = a+ x .

Now, suppose that statement is true for K then we get the following

equalities

a K+1 = a 2 + x (a+ a 2 +…+ ak-1)

= a+ x (1+a+ … aK-2)

25
We conclude that for each non-negative integer n, there is some X K ϵ I

such that aK = a + XK.

Now,

n
(−1 ) , 1+ ∑ (−1 )
n

k=1
n−k
(nk) ¿ ¿ ) ϵ I
k

But, (−1 ) .1+∑ (−1 )

k=1
n−k
( nk) a=(−1) (1−a)
n

Hence, 1-a ϵ I and so ā = 1̅

Therefore, R\I is a local ring.

Example:- In (Z, +,.), 8Z is a primary ideal and Z/8Z is a local ring,

where Z/8Z = Z8 and has 2 + 8Z as an unique maximal ideal.

Theorem 1.3.2. A finite module M over a Noetherian ring R is a

Noetherian module.

Proof:- We prove that assertion by induction on the number of

generators of M. If M is generated by the empty set then M = 0 and

the assertion is obvious. Assume now that M= R x 1+ …… R x r and that

26
 r

M´ = ∑ Rx i is Noetherian. Let N be an arbitrary R- sub module of M.

Let a be the set of elements a of R such that a x 1 ϵ N + M´

i.e., a = (N+M´) : R x 1 . Then a is an ideal of R, hence a has a finite

basis say a1, ……… am.

Let di be for each i = 1, …… m such that d i ϵ N and such that di -ai x i ϵ

M´ and let N´ be the sub module ∑ Rdi of N.

Then N = N´ + (N∩M´).

Since, M´ is Noetherian by our assumption N∩M’ has a finite basis

hence N has a finite basis.

Therefore, M is Noetherian.

Theorem 1.3.3. If a ring R´ is generated by a finite number of

elements over a Noetherian ring R then R´ is Noetherian.

(HILBERTS BASIS THEOREM).

Proof:- Using an induction argument on the number of generators we

may treat only the case where R´ = R [ x ] with a single element x of R

27
´. Let a´ be an arbitrary ideal of R´. Let a be the set of elements a of R

such that there is an element a´ of a’ of the form,

a´ = a x s + c1 x s-1 +………..+cs (for a suitable natural number s

and elements Ci of R). Then a is an ideal of R. Since R is Noetherian a

has a finite basis say a1, …………am.

Let ai be for each i an element of a’ such that

a´i - ai x s ϵ R x s-1 + ……….. + R x + R for some S.

Considering elements of the form ai x α, we may assume that S is

common to all ai. Let a´´ be the ideal of R´ generated by ai. Then by

our choice of a’’, we see that every element of a´ is congruent to an

element of R x s-1 + …….. + R x + R modulo a´´ namely.

s−1

a´ = (a´ ∩ (∑ R x i) )+ a´´
0

s−1

since ∑ R x i is a finite R module it is Noetherian.

s−1

Hence, a´ ∩ (∑ R x i) has a finite basis.

Therefore a´ has a finite basis which proof that R´ is Noetherian.

28
Theorem 1.3.4. A ring R with a field of quotients K is a valuation

ring of K if and only if one of the following conditions is satisfied.

1) If aϵ K then either a or a-1 is in R.

2) Every finitely generated ideal of R is principal and R is quasi

local.

Proof:- (1) is nothing but a restatement of the defn. Assume that R is a

valuation ring and let m be the set of non-units of R.

Let a1 , ….., ar be arbitrary elements of m. Then there is an element as

(s≤r) such that ai ϵ asR for any j.

Hence the ideal generated by these elements is the principal ideal asR.

Which is contained in m, which implies (2) Conversely, if (2) is true

then for any two elements b, C of R the ideal bR+ CR is principal

hence, either bR+CR = bR or bR+CR=CR.

Which shows that R is a valuation ring. Thus, the theorem is proved.

Reference

29
1. Masayoshi Nagata, Kyoto University, a division of John wiley

& sons, New York.

2. Lam, T.Y. (1991), “A first course in Non commutative Rings”

springer-verlag New York, Inc.

3. [Link] ring

30