Introduction to Rings

Hong-Jian Lai
August 2000
1. Rings and Homomorphisms
(1.1) A ring is a non emptyset R together with two binary operations (denoted as
addition (+) and multiplication) such that
(R1) (R, +) is an abelian group, (its additive identity is usually denoted by 0);
(R2) the multiplication is associative;
(R3) a, b, c R, a(b + c) = ab + ac, (a + b)c = ac + bc.
(1.1a) Suppose R is a ring.
(R4) If a, b R, ab = ba, then R is a commutative ring.
(R5) if 1R R such that a R, a1R = 1R a = a, then R is a ring with identity,
and this element 1R is a (multiplicative) identity of R.
(1.2) (Thm 1.2) Let R be a ring. Then a, b R and n Z,
(i) 0a = a0 = 0,
(ii) a(b) = (a)b = (ab) and (a)(b) = ab,
(iii) n(ab) = a(nb)
=(na)b, and

(iv)

n
X
i=1

ai

m
X

j=1

bj =

n X
m
X

ai bj , ai , bj R.

i=1 i=1

(v) If R is a ring with identity, then its multiplicative identity is unique.

(1.3) Let R be a ring. If a, b R {0} such that ab = 0, then a is a left zero
divisor and b is a right zero divisor. Each of a and b is also called a zero divisor.
Example: Mn (F ), the set of all n n matrices over the field F .

(1.4) Let R be a ring with identity 1R . If a, b R such that ab = 1R , then a is

left invertible and b is right invertible. An element a that is both left invertible
as well as right invertible is a unit.
Examples: Zn , Z.
(1.5) A commutative ring R with identity 1R 6= 0 is an integral domain if R has no
zero divisors; an integral domain in which every element is a unit is a field. A ring R
with identity 1R 6= 0 is an division ring (also called a skew field) if every element
is a unit.
Example: The real quaternians Let Q denote the set of R4 . Then (Q, +) is
an abelian group. Denote
1 = (1, 0, 0, 0), i = (0, 1, 0, 0), j = (0, 0, 1, 0), k = (0, 0, 0, 1).
Define (a1 , a2 , a3 , a4 ) = a1 + a2 i + a3 j + a4 k. For multiplication, define:
1a = a1 = a, a Q, i2 = j 2 = k 2 = 1,
and
ij = k, jk = i, ki = j, ji = k, kj = i, ik = j.
Linearly expand these to general products in Q. Then Q forms a skew field (noncommutative division ring)
(1.6) (Thm 1.6) (The binomial formula). Let R be a ring, and let a, b R. If
ab = ba, then
n
X

n i ni

ab .
(a + b)n =
i
i=0
(1.7) Ring Homomorphisms and Isomorphisms Let R and R0 be rings. A function f : R 7 R0 is a homomorphism if a, b R,
f (a + b) = f (a) + f (b), f (ab) = f (a)f (b).
If, in addition, f is a bijection, then f is an isomorphism. The kernel of f is the
set ker(f ) = {a R : f (a) = 0}.
2

(1.7a) (Properties of a kernel) Let f : R 7 R0 be a ring homomorphism with

K = ker(f ). Then
(i) K is a subring of R (a nonempty subset L of R is a subring if L with the
same binary operations of R forms a ring itself.)
(ii) r R and a K, ra K and ar K; moreover, for any integer n, na K.
Any subring I of R is called an ideal if it also satisfies (ii) in (1.7a).

2. Ideals
(2.1) Let R be a ring and let I R be a subring.
(i) If, r R, rI I, (resp. Ir I) then I is a left ideal (resp. right ideal).
(ii) I is an ideal if it is both a left ideal and a right ideal.
Two Important Examples: The integers Z and F [x], the ring of polynomials
over a field F .
(2.2) (Thm 2.2) Let I R be a nonempty set.
(i) I is a subring iff a, b I, a b I, and ab I.
(ii) I is a left ideal (resp. right ideal) iff a, b I, a b I, and a I, r R,
ra I (resp. ar I).
(2.3) (Examples) Let R be a ring.
(i) Let {Ij : j J} be a collection of (left) ideals of R, then jJ Ij is also a (left)
ideal of R.
(ii) The center of R is
C(R) = {a R : r R, ra = ar}.
Then C(R) is a subring but C(R) may not be an ideal.
Example: Let R = M2 (R), all 2 by 2 real matrices with the matrix addition and
matrix multiplication.
(2.4) (Ideals generated by elements) Let X R be a subset of a ring R. The
smallest ideal containing X (the intersection of all ideals of R containing X) is de3

noted by (X). When X = {a}, we use (a) for ({a}), and call (a) a principal ideal.
In integral domain in which every ideal is principal is called an principal ideal domain (or just PID).
(2.5) (Thm 2.5)
a R and X R.
( Let R be a ring,
)
m
X
(i) (a) = ra + as + na +
ri asi : r, s, ri , si R and m, n Z, m > 0 .
i=1

(ii) If R has an identity, then (a) =

(m
X

ri asi : ri , si R and m Z, m > 0 .

i=1

(iii) If a C(R), then (a) = {ra + na : r R and n Z}.

(iv) If R has an identity and a C(R), then (a) = {ra : r R}.
PF: In each case, check (1) the right hand side is an ideal, (2) an ideal containing a must contain the elements in the set of the right hand side.
(2.6) Let A1 , A2 , ..., An , A, B R be non empty subsets. Define
A1 + A2 + + An = {a1 + a2 + + an : ai Ai , 1 i n},
and
AB =

(m
X

ai bi : ai A, bi B, 1 i n and n Z, n > 0 , and A1 A2 An = (A1 A2 An1 )A

i=1

If A1 , A2 , ..., An , A, B, C are (left) ideals of R, then each of the following holds.

(i) A1 + A2 + + An and A1 A2 An are also (left) ideals of R.
(ii) (A + B) + C = A + (B + C).
(iii) (AB)C = A(BC).
(iv) A(B + C) = AB + AC and (A + B)C = AC + BC.
PF: Apply definitions/properties.
(2.7) Let R be a ring and I R be an ideal. The quotient group R/I (viewed
as cosets of the abelian group R) with the multiplication
(a + I)(b + I) = ab + I, a, b R,
forms a ring, called a Quotient Ring of R. If R has an identity 1, then 1 + I will
be the identity of R/I.
4

PF: Need to show the multiplication is well defined.

(2.8) Isomorphism Theorems: each of the group isomorphism theorem. The proofs
are similar.
(2.9) Let R be a ring and I R be an ideal.
(i) If for any ideas A, B in R,
AB I = A I or B I,
then I is a prime ideal.
(ii) If for any (left) ideal L in R,
I L 6= R = I = L,
then I is a maximal (left) ideal.
(2.10) (Thm 2.15) Let R be a ring and P R be an ideal such that P 6= R.
(i) If a, b R, ab P = a P or b P , then P is prime.
(ii) If R is commutative and P is prime, then
a, b R, ab P = a P or b P.

PF: (i) Pick a A P and b B to see B P .

(ii) Use principal ideals.
(2.11) (Thm 2.16) Let R be a commutative ring with identity 1 6= 0 and I be an
ideal in R. TFAE
(i) I is prime.
(ii) R/I is an integral domain.
PF: Apply Definitions.
(2.12) (Thm 2.20) Let R be a ring with identity 1 6= 0, and M be an ideal of R.
5

(i) If M is maximal and R is commutative, then R/M is a field.

(ii) If R is commutative, then every maxial ideal is prime.
(iii) If M contains a unit, then M = R.
(iv) If R/M is a division ring, then M is maximal.
PF: (i) By (2.7), R/M is a commutative ring with identity 1 + M 6= M . a R M ,
M maximal = M + (a) = R, and so 1 = m + ra by (2.5)(iv).
(iii) If M contains an unit, then 1 M and so R = (1) M .
(iv) Let L be an ideal in R with M L. a L M , a + M has an inverse b + M ,
and so ab + M = 1 + M = ab 1 M L. As ab L, 1 L and so R = L.

3. Some Applications
(3.1) Fermats Little Theorem: If n, p are integers such that p is a prime and
(n, p) = 1, then p|np1 1.
PF: Recall that the set of all units form a multiplicative group. (View n Zp {0}
and use Lagrange in group).
(3.1a) np n (mod p), n Z, and prime p.
(3.2) For each n Z+ (positive integers), (n) is the number of integers between
1 and n that are relatively prime with n.
Eulers Generalization: If (m, n) = 1, then m(n) 1 (mod n). (Use the same
argument in (3.1a).)
(3.3) Let R be a ring with identity 1 6= 0, and U (R) be the set of all units in R. If
a U (R), then the equation ax = b has a unique solution x = a1 b in R.
Example: R = Zm .
(3.3a) Let a, b Zm and let d = (m, a). Then
(i) ax = b has a solution in Zm if and only if d|b.
(ii) When d|b, there are exactly d solutions.
PF: (i) axb = qm = d|b. Conversely, assume a = a1 d, b = b1 d and m = m1 d. Note
that ax b = qm a1 x b1 = qm1 . Since (a1 , m1 ) = 1, by (1.12), a1 x b1 = qm1
has a unique solution s. (ii) But in Zm (viewed as {0, ..., m 1}), there are exactly
d elements of the form s + km1 , (0 k d 1) that are modulo m1 .
Example: Solve 45x 15 (mod 24). Note (45,24)=3. Consider 15x 5 (mod 8). It
becomes 7x 5 (mod 8). Since 72 1 (mod 8), x (7)(5) 3 (mod 8). Therefore
x 3, 11, 19 (mod 24).
(3.4) Notation: Let R be a ring and A be an ideal in R. Write a A b or A b (mod
A) if a b A.
(3.5) (Thm 2.25) (Chinese Remainder Theorem) Let R be a ring and let A1 , A2 , ..., An
be ideals in R such that for all i, R2 + Ai = R, and for all i 6= j, Ai + Aj = R.
7

(i) b1 , b2 , ..., bn R, b R such that

b Ai bi , i.
(ii) If b and b0 are two elements in R satisfying (i), then
b b0 (mod ni=1 Ai ).

PF: (Step 1) Apply induction to show for each k,

n
Y

R = Ak +

Ai .

i=1,i6=k

For induction basis, use R = A1 + A2 = A1 + A3 to show that

R = A1 + R2 A1 + (A2 A3 ) R,
and so equalities must hold. Proceed induction similarly.
(Step 2) By Step 1, i, ai Ai and ri ni=1 Ai such that bi = ai +ri . Let b =

Pn

i=1 ri .

(Use the fact that Ai Aj Ai Aj .)

(ii) Note that b b0 Ai for all i.
(3.6) (Cor 2.26) Let m1 , m2 , ..., mn be positive integers such that (mi , mj ) = 1 for
all i 6= j. If b1 , b2 , ..., bn are integers, then the system

x b1

x b2

..

x bn

(mod m1 )
(mod m2 )
..
.
(mod mn )

has an integral solution x that is uniquely determined midulo m = m1 m2 mn .

4. Factorizations in Commutative Rings

(4.1) Let R be a ring, a R {0} and b R.
(i) We say that a divides b (written a|b) if the equation ax = b has a solution in
8

R. We say a and b are associates if both a|b and b|a hold.

(ii) If R is commutative with 1, then c R {0} is irreducible (or reduced) if
c 6 U (R) and c = ab = a U (R) or b U (R).
(iii) If R is commutative with 1, then p R {0} is a prime if if p 6 U (R) and
p|ab = p|a or p|b.
(4.2) (Thm 3.2) Let R be a commutative ring with 1, and a, b, u R.
(i) a|b (b) (a).
(ii) a and b are associates (b) = (a).
(iii) u is a unit (u) = R.
(iv) u is a unit u|r, r R.
(v) being associate is an equivalence relation.
(vi) If R is an integral domain, then a and b are associates if and only if a = rb
for some unit r R.
PF: (Think about integers)
(4.3) (Thm 3.4) Let R be an integral domain and let p, c R {0}.
(i) p is a prime iff (p) is a prime ideal.
(ii) c is irreducible iff (c) is maximal in the set of all proper principal ideals of R.
((c) may not be a maximal ideal of R.)
(iii) Every prime element is irreducible.
(iv) If R is a PID, then p is prime iff p is irreducible.
(v) An associate of an irreducible element if also irreducible.
PF: Use the fact that x|y (y) (x) for (i) and (ii). (iii) and (iv): c irreducible = (c) maximal = (c) prime = c prime if = c = ab, then c|ab and so
wma c|a. Thus a = cx and so c = cxb resulting 1 = xb, and b U (R). Thus c is
irreducible.
(4.4) An integral domain is a UFD (uniquely factorization domain) if both of
the following hold.
(UFD1) (Existence of factorization) a R (U (R) {0}), a can be written as
a = c1 c2 cn , where c1 , c2 , ..., cn are irreducible.
9

(UFD2) (Uniqueness of factorization) If a = c1 c2 cn and a = b1 b2 bm , where

each ci and bj is irreducible, then n = m and for some permutation of {1, 2, ..., n}
ci and b(i) are associates for every i.
(4.5) Let R be a ring. We define the following.
(ACC) The ascending chain condition (ACC) for ideals holds in R if every
strictly increasing sequence N1 N2 N3 (Ni 6= Nj if i 6= j) of ideals in R is
of finite length.
(MC) The maximum condition (MC) for ideals holds in R if every nonempty
set S of ideals in R contains an ideal not properly contained in any other ideal of the
set S.
(FBC) The finite basis condition (FBC) for ideals holds in R if for each ideal
N in R, there exists a finite set BN such that N is the intersection of all ideals of R
containing BN . The set BN is a finite basis for N .
(DCC) The descending chain condition (DCC) for ideals holds in R if every
strictly decreasing sequence N1 N2 N3 (Ni 6= Nj if i 6= j) of ideals in R is
of finite length.
(mC) The minimum condition (mC) for ideals holds in R if every nonempty
set S of ideals in R contains an ideal that does not properly contain any other ideal
of the set S.
(4.6) ACC holds in a PID.
PF: (1) Union of a nest of ideals is also an ideal. (2) This is a PID.
(4.7) (Thm 3.7) Every PID R is a UFD. (Axiom of Choice needed?)
PF: (UFD1) Pick a R (U (R) {0}).
(Step 1) Either a is irreducible, or there exists an irreducible p1 such that a = p1 c1 ,
where c1 R (U (R) {0}).
If a is not irreducible, then a = a1 b1 , a1 , b1 R(U (R){0}). If a1 is not irreducible,
then a1 = a2 b2 , a2 , b2 R (U (R) {0}). If no such an irreducible element exists,

10

then we have a strictly increasing chain of ideals

(a) (a1 ) (a2 )
It must terminate at an (ar ), and so ar must be irreducible, a contradiction.
(Step 2) Apply (Step 1) to c1 , we have either c1 is irreducible, or c1 = p2 c2 , where p2
is irreducible and C2 R (U (R) {0}). If (UFD1) fails, then we have a strictly
increasing chain of ideals
(a) (c1 ) (c2 )
It must terminate at a (cr ), and so cr must be irreducible. It follows that a =
p1 p2 cdotspr1 cr is a product of irreducibles, a contradiction.
(UFD2) Suppose that a = c1 c2 cn and a = b1 b2 bm , where each ci and bj is
irreducible. Assume that m n. Then c1 |a = b1 b2 bm , and we may assume that
c1 |b1 (since c1 is a prime also.) Therefore, c1 = b1 u1 for some u1 U (R), and so
b1 u1 c 2 c n = a = b1 b2 bm .
Since R is a domain, u1 c2 cn = b2 bm . Repeat this process to get
1 = u1 u2 un bn+1 bm .
Since each bi is a non unit, m = n.
(4.8) Let N denote the set of positive integers and R a commutative ring. R is a
Euclidean ring if there is a map : R {0} 7 N such that
(ED1) a, b R with ab 6= 0, (a) (ab).
(ED2) If a, b R and b 6= 0, then q, r R such that a = qb + r with r = 0 or
r 6= 0 and (r) < (b)
If R is a domain satisfying both (ED1) and (ED2), then R is a Euclidean domain
(ED).
(4.9) (Important Example: Guassian integers) Let Z[i] denote the subset of complex numbers of the form a + bi, where a, b Z are integers and i2 = 1. Define
(a + bi) = a2 + b2 , then Z[i] is an ED.
Other example: Z with (n) = |n|; F [x] with (f (x)) = degree of f (x).
11

(4.10) Every ED is a PID (and so a UFD).

PF: Let R be an ED, and I R be an ideal. Assume that I 6= R. Choose a I so
that (a) is minimum in {(x) : x I}. Then (ED1) and (ED2) imply that I = (a).

12

5. Rings of Quotients and Localization

Question in mind: Observe and study how to obtain fractions from integers, and
consider the more general question: How to obtain a smallest field from an integral
domain?
(5.1) A nonempty subset S in a ring R is multiplicative if a, b S, we have
ab S. Important Reminder: Throughout this section, we always assume that
S is a multiplicative set in a commutative ring R. (This assumption may not be
repeated.)
(5.1a) (Fact and Example) If P is a prime ideal in a commutative ring R, then R P
is a multiplicative set. (Definition)
(5.2) (Thm 4.2) The relation on R S by
(r, s) (r0 , s0 ) s1 (rs0 r0 s) = 0, for some s1 S
is an equivalence relation. Furthermore, if 0 6 S and R has no zero divisors, then the
following is also an equivalence relation:
(r, s) (r0 , s0 ) (rs0 r0 s) = 0.
(5.3) Definition of rings of quotients We use the notations in (5.2). Denote the
equivalence class that contains (r, s) by r/s, and the set of all equivalence classes by
S 1 R. Then
(i) r/s = r0 /s0 s1 (rs0 r0 s) = 0, for some s1 S.
(ii) tr/ts = r/s, r R and t, s S.
(iii) If 0 S, then S 1 R has only one member.
When S 6= , S 1 R is called the complete ring of quotients or the full ring of
quotients) of R.
(5.4) (Thm 4.3) (Continuation of (5.3)) Each of the following holds.
(i) S 1 R is a commutative ring with identity (called the ring of quotients),
where addition and multiplications are
r/s + r0 /s0 = (rs0 + r0 s)/ss0 and (r/s)(r0 /s0 ) = (rr0 )/(ss0 ).
(ii) If R 6 {0} has no zero divisor, and if 0 6 S, then S 1 R is an integral domain.
(iii) If R 6 {0} has no zero divisor, and if S = R {0}, then S 1 R is a field
13

(quotient field).
PF: (i) Only need to verify that the definitions are well-defined. Note that s/s will
be the multiplicative identity.
(ii)/(iii) Only need to show that S 1 R has no zero divisors/(every non zero has an
inverse: (r/s)(s/r) = 1).
(5.5) (Thm 4.4) (extending the embedding map from Z to Q)
(i) The map S : R 7 S 1 R by r 7 rs/s for some s S is a well-defined ring
homomorphism, such that s S, S (s) is a unit in S 1 R.
(ii) If 0 6 S, and S contains no zero devisors, then S is a monomorphism. (Thus
any integral domain can be embedded in its quotient ring.)
(iii) If R has an identity, and S consists of units, then S is an isomorphism.
(Thus the full ring of quotients of a filed F is isomorphic to F itself).
PF: Verify each by definitions.
(5.6) (Thm 4.7) (What happen if the process above is applied to an ideal?)
(i) If I is an ideal in R, then S 1 I = {a/s : a I, s S} is an ideal in S 1 R.
(ii) If J is another ideal in R, then
S 1 (I + J) = S 1 I + S 1 J, S 1 (IJ) = (S 1 I)(S 1 J), S 1 (I J) = (S 1 I) (S 1 J).
0
(iii) If I 0 is an ideal of S 1 R, then 1
S (I ) is an ideal in R, (called the contraction

of I 0 in R.)
PF: (iii) is old. Note that
n
X

(ci /s) =

i=1

n
X
i=1

ci /s,

n
X
i=1

(ai bi /s) =

n
X

(ai /s)(bi s/s),

n
X
i=1

i=1

(ci /si ) =

n
X
i=1

ci

n
Y
k=1

sk /

n
Y
k=1

(5.7) Suppose that R has an identity, and I is an ideal of R. Then S 1 I = S 1 R

S I 6= .
1
PF: s S I = s/s S 1 I = S 1 I = S 1 R = 1
I) = R = for
S (S

some a I, s/s = S (1R ) = a/s = for some s1 S, s2 s1 = ass1 S I.

14

sk .

(5.8) (Lemma 4.9) Suppose that R has an identity, and I is an ideal of R.

1
(i) I 1
I).
S (S
1
(ii) If I = 1
R, then S 1 I = J.
S (J) for some ideal J in S

(iii) If P is a prime ideal in R and S P = , then S 1 P is a prime ideal in S 1 R

1
and 1
P) = P.
S (S

1
PF: (i) a I = S (a) = (as)/s S 1 I = a 1
I).
S (S
1
(ii) I = 1
I = {r/s : S (r) J, s S} = r/s = (1/s)(rs/s)
S (J) = S

(1/s)J = J = S 1 I J. Conversely, r/s J = S (r) = rs/s = (s2 /s)(r/s)

1
J = r 1
I.
S (J) = I = r/s S

(iii) By (5.7), P S = = S 1 P 6= S 1 R. Assume (r/s)(r0 /s0 ) = rr0 /(ss0 ) = a/t

S 1 P, a P and t S, = s1 trr/ = s1 ss0 a for some s1 S, = rr0 P (as s1 t S
and S P = ), and so r/s or r0 /s0 S 1 P .
1
1
P ) = S (r) = a/t
P ) P (by (i)). r 1
It remains to show 1
S (S
S (S

S 1 P, a P and t S, = s1 str = s1 sa P , for some s1 S, r P (as s1 st S

and S P = ).
(5.9) (Thm 4.10) Suppose R has identity. Then there is a one-to-one correspondence between the set U of prime ideals of R which are disjoint from S, and the set
V of prime ideas of S 1 R, given by P 7 S 1 P .
PF: By (5.8)(iii), only need to show the map P 7 S 1 P is onto. If J is a prime
1
ideal in S 1 R, then let P = 1
S (J), and then (5.8)(ii) says S (P ) = J. (Show that

P is prime). a, b R with ab P , S (a)S (b) J = S (a) J or S (b) J = a

or b 1
S (J) = P .
(5.10) Let P be a prime ideal in a commutative ring R, and let S = R P . Then
S 1 P is called the localization of R at P .
Let R be a commutative ring with identity. If R has a unique maximal ideal, then R
is called a local ring.
(5.11) (Thm 4.13) Let R be a commutative ring with identity. TFAE:
(i) R is a local ring.
15

(ii) R U (R) is contained in an idea M 6= R.

(iii) R U (R) is an ideal in R.

16

6. Rings of Polynomials and Factorizations

Questions in mind: How do the roots of a polynomial distributed? When does the
division algorithm hold? When a polynomial ring is a UFD?
(6.1) (Thm 5.1) Let R be a ring and let
R[x] = {(a0 , a1 , a2 , ...) : ai R, and aj = 0 for all but finitely many js },
denote the set of all sequences of elements of R such that ai = 0 for all but finitely
many ai s.
(i) R[x] is a ring with
(a0 , a1 , ...) + (b0 , b1 , ...) = (a0 + b0 , a1 + b1 , ...),
and
(a0 , a1 , ...)(b0 , b1 , ...) = (c0 , c1 , ...),
where
cn =

n
X

ani bi =

i=0

ak b j .

k+j=n

(ii) If R is commutative (resp. with identity, without zero divisors), then so is

R[x].
(iii) (embedding R into R[x]) The map R 7 R[x] by r 7 (r, 0, 0, ...) is an
monomorphism.
Note One can identify (a0 , a1 , a2 , ..., an , 0, 0, ...) with a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + + an xn
in the traditional way, by introducing the indeterminate x. We shall make no distinction between these two notations. But this can be formally done as in (6.2)
below. R[x] is the ring of polynomials, and a0 , a1 , ... are coefficients of f , a0 is
the constant term; and an , then largest nonzero ai in the sequence, is the leading
coefficient; f = a0 is a constant polynomial. When R has 1R , and when an = 1,
then f = a0 + xn is a monic polynomial.
In addition to the ring operations, we define the scalar multiplication between
r R and (a0 , a1 , a2 , ...) R[x] as
r(a0 , a1 , a2 , ...) = (ra0 , ra1 , ra2 , ...) and (a0 , a1 , a2 , ...)r = (a0 r, a1 r, a2 r, ...).

17

(6.2) (Thm 5.2) Let R be a ring with identity 1R = 1. Denote x = (0, 1, 0, ...). Then
(ii) xn = (0, 0, ..., 0, 1, 0...), where 1 is the (n + 1)th coordinate.
(ii) r R, rxn = xn r.
(iii) f R[x] {(0, 0, ...., 0...)}, n N and a0 , a1 , ..., an R such that
f = a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + + an xn . Theses parameters n, a0 , a1 , ..., an are unique
in the sense that if f = b0 + b1 x + b2 x2 + + bm xm with bi R and m n, then
ai = bi for all 0 i n and bi = 0 for i n + 1.
PF: (iii) Choose n to be the largest such that an 6= 0. Then apply identity in set
products.
Note This unique n is the degree of f , denoted by deg(f ). For convenience, we
define deg(0) = .
(6.A)
(6.3) (Thm 6.1) Let R be a ring and f, g R[x].
(i) deg(f + g) max{deg(f ), deg(g)}.
(ii) deg(f g) deg(f ) + deg(g).
(iii) If R has no zero divisor, then deg(f g) = deg(f ) + deg(g).
(6.4) (Thm 6.2) Let R be a ring with identity and f, g R[x] {0} such that
the leading coefficient of g is in U (R). There exist unique q, r R[x] such that
f = qg + r and deg(r) < deg(g).

PF: g(x) = bm xm + ... and bm U (R). Compare the degrees to prove the uniqueness.
(6.5) (Evaluation Homomorphism and The Remainder Theorem) Let R be a ring,
r R, and f (x) = a0 + a1 x + + an xn R[x]. Define f (r) = a0 + a1 r + + an rn .
(i) The map f (x) 7 f (r) is a homomorphism R[x] 7 R.
(ii) Suppose R has 1. For any c R, there exists a unique q(x) R[x] such that
f (x) = q(x)(x c) + f (c).
18

(iii) If f (c) = 0, then (x c)|f (x). Moreover, if R is commutative, then that

(x c)|f (x) implies f (c) = 0. (An element c R is a root of f (x) if f (c) = 0).
(iv) If F is a field, then F [x] is an ED.
(6.6) (Thm 6.7) Let D, E be integral domains such that D E. If f (x) D[x]
has degree n, then f (x) has at most n distinct roots in E.
PF: Induction on n. No zero divisor is needed.
(6.7) Let F be a field, and let G be a finite multiplicative subgroup of the multiplicative group F = U (F ) = F {0}. Then G is cyclic. In particular, if |F | is finite,
then every subgroup of F is cyclic.
PF: (Apply The Fundamental Theorem of Finitely Generalized Abelien Groups)
(6.8) Suppose that R is a UFD.
(i) Every irreducible is also a prime.
(ii) Assume further that c, d R are relatively prime (that is, any common
divisor of c and d must be a unit). If for some a R, c|ad, then c|a.
PF (i): Suppose p|ab and p is an irreducible. Then ab = qc for some c R. Factor
both sides into products of irreducibles
(a1 a2 )(b1 b2 ) = p(c1 c2 ).
By uniqueness of factorization, as may assume a1 = up for some u U (R)
PF (ii): Factor ba = cd into products of irreducibles.
(6.9) Let R be a UFD with a quotient field F (that is, (R {0})1 R = F ). If
f (x) = a0 + a1 x + + an xn D[x], and if u = c/d F is a root of f (x) such that
c and d , then c|a0 and d|an .
PF: f (c/d) = 0
n

a0 d = c

n
X

ai c

i1 ni

and an c =

i=1

n
X
i=1

19

!
i ni

ai c d

(6.10) Let R be a UFD. f (x) =

Pn

i=0

ai xi R[x], a greatest common divisor of

a0 , a1 , ..., an is called a content of f (x), and is denoted by C(f ). (Note that C(f ) is
not clearly defined, can be viewed as an equivalence class with a = b iff a and b are
associates in R). f is primitive if C(f ) U (R).
(i) If a R and f R[x], then C(af ) = aC(f ).
(ii) If f R[x], then there exists a primitive f1 R[x] such that f = C(f )f1 .
(iii) (Gauss) If f, g R[x] are primitive, then f g is also primitive.
(iv) If f (x), g(x) R[x], then C(f g) = C(f )C(g).
(v) (uniqueness of content) If f, g R[x] are primitive, and if af (x) = b(g(x),
then u U (R) such that a = ub.
PF of (iii): Let
f = a0 + a1 x + + an xn , and g = d0 + d1 + + bm xm .
Then
f g = c0 + c1 + + cm+n xm+n .
Suppose that C(f g) 6 U (R). Then p R is an irreducible, such that p|C(f g). But
C(f ) U (R) = a smallest index s such that
p|ai for i < s and p 6 |as .
Similarly, a smallest index t such that
p|bj for j < t and p 6 |bt .
It follows from
p|cs+t = a0 bs+t + a1 bs+t1 + + as bt + + as+t b0
that p|as bt . Apply (6.8)(i).
PF of (iv): Write f = C(f )f1 and g = C(g)g1 . Then f g = C(f )C(g)f1 g1 .
PF of (v): Let p|a be an irreducible(and prime). Then p|bg(x) = p|b.
(6.11) Let R be a UFD with quotient field F . Let f, g R[x] be primitive. Then f
and g are associates in R[x] iff they are associates in F [x].

20

PF(IF): By (4.2)(vi). u U (F [x]) = F such that f = ug b R, c R {0}

such that u = b/c, cf = bg = (as C(f ), C(g) U (R), and by (6.10(i)) b = cv for
some v U (R) = f = vg for some v U (R).
(6.12) Let R be a UFD with quotient field F . Let f R[x] with deg(f ) > 0.
(i) If f is irreducible in R[x], then f is irreducible in F [x].
(ii) If f is primitive, then f is irreducible in R[x] iff f is irreducible in F [x].
PF(ONLY IF): Let f = gh in F [x] with deg(g) > 1 and deg(h) > 1. Then d R,
and g1 , h1 R[x] such that
df (x) = g1 (x)h1 (x),
and such that deg(g1 ) = deg(g) and deg(h1 ) = deg(h). Also, there exist primitive
f2 , g2 , h2 R[x] such that f (x) = C(f )f2 , g1 = C(g1 )g2 and h1 = C(h1 )h2 . It follows
that
df (x) = C(g1 )C(h1 )g2 (x)h2 (x).
By (6.10)(v), u U (R) such that du = C(g1 )C(h1 ). Thus
df (x) = dC(f )f2 (x) = dug2 (x)h2 (x), and so f (x) = C(f )f2 (x) = ug2 (x)h2 (x).

(6.12A) If R is a UFD and F is the field of quotients of R, then a nonconstant

f (x) R[x] factors into a product of two polynomials of lower degree r and s in F [x]
iff f (x) factors into a product of two polynomials of lower degree r and s in R[x].
(6.13) If R is a UFD, then R[x] is also a UFD.
PF: Let F be the field of quotients of R.
(Step 1) F [x] is an ED, and so a UFD.
(Step 2) f (x) R[x] ({0} U (R)), f (x) can be factored into a product of irreducibles in R[x].
If deg(f ) = 0, then since R is UFD, done. Otherwise, f (x) =
1). But then f (x) =

pi (x) in F [x] by (Step

qi (x) in R[x] by (6.12A).

(Step 3) (uniqueness) Since R is UFD, we assume that f (x) R[x] has deg(f ) > 0.
21

Assume in F [x]
f (x) = p1 (x) pm (x).
Then by (6.12A), f (x) = Cq1 (x) qm (x) in R[x], where qi s are irreducible and
primitive in R[x], and C R. But R is a UFD, and so C can be uniquely factored.
(6.14) (Eisensteins Criterion) Let R be a UFD with quotient field F .
2

If f =

a0 + a1 x + a2 x + + an x with deg(f ) 1, and if p is an irreducible in R such that

p 6 |an ; p|ai for (0 i n 1), and p2 6 |a0 .
Then
(i) f is irreducible in F [x].
(ii) If, in addition, f is primitive in R[x], then f is irreducible in R[x].
PF: Write f (x) = C(f )f1 (x), where f1 (x) is primitive in R[x]. As C(f ) D
F = U (F [x]), we only need to show that f1 (x) is irreducible in R[x]. Assume
f1 (x) = g(x)h(x) in R[x],
where
g = br xr + + b0 R[x], deg(g) = r > 1; and
h = cs xs + + c0 R[x]
Then f1 = gh = a00 + a01 x + a02 x2 + + a0n xn , where
a0k = b0 ck + b1 ck1 + + bk1 c1 + bk c0 .
Since p 6 |an , = p 6 |C(f ), and so
p 6 |a0n ; p|a0i for (0 i n 1), and p2 6 |a00 .
(A) p is a prime, and p|a00 = b0 c0 , we may assume p|b0 and p 6 |c0 (as p2 6 |a00 ).
(B) Choose smallest k such that p 6 |bk .
p|a0k

Then 1 k r < n.

= p|bk c0 .

(6.14A) Example: f (x) = x4 + 3x + 3 is irreducible in Z[x].

22

But then,

(6.14B) Example: Let f (x) = x4 + 4kx + 1 Z[x]. Let y = x 1. Then

g(y) = f (y + 1) = y 4 + 4y 3 + 6y 2 + (4k + 4)y + 4k + 2.
Pick p = 2 and ask Eisenstein.

23