A2 Physics Secret Sauce (9702):

Chapter #1 - Circular Motion:

1. Radian: The angle subtended at the center of the circle when arc length equals the
radius.
2. Angular displacement (θ): is a measure of the angle through which an object moves
in a circle.
3. Linear Displacement(s): Length of curved track formed when an object moves in a
circle.
4. Linear Velocity (v): Rate of change of linear displacement.
5. Angular Velocity (w): Rate of change of angular displacement.
6. Centripetal Force: A resultant force that tends to rotate an object in a circle.
7. Uniform circular Motion: Acceleration perpendicular to constant magnitude velocity
8. Centripetal Acceleration: Acceleration perpendicular to velocity

Formulas for Circular Motion:

𝑆 = 𝑟𝜃
S = Linear displacement (m)

r = radius of sector (m)

𝜃 = 𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡

2𝜋 2𝜋𝑁
𝑤= = 2𝜋𝑓 =
𝑇 60
w = Angular velocity (rads-1)

T = time Period (s)

f = frequency (Hz)

N = revolutions per minute

𝑣 = 𝑟𝑤
v = Linear velocity (ms-1)

Centripetal Acceleration:

𝑣2
𝑎𝑐 = 𝑣𝑤 = = 𝑟𝑤 2
𝑟
Centripetal Force:

𝑚𝑣 2
𝐹𝑐 = 𝑚𝑣𝑤 = = 𝑚𝑟𝑤 2
𝑟
Tips for Examinations:
Key note 1: In theory and if you have to mark it on the diagram always mark centripetal
force towards the center. But to make life easy in numerical mark it away so that you can
equate the forces.
Key note 2: Whenever you are given the time period you will apply this formula of
centripetal force:
𝐹𝑐 = 𝑚𝑟𝑤 2

Key note 3: Whenever you are given the linear velocity you will apply this formula of
centripetal force:
𝑚𝑣 2
𝐹𝑐 =
𝑟

Chapter #2 - Gravitation:

1. Field of force: Region of space where a particle experiences a force

2. Newton’s Law of Gravitation: The force of attraction between two-point masses is
directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the
square of their separation.
3. What is represented by the gravitational field strength line?
The direction of force on a small test mass
4. Gravitational Field/Gravitational Field Strength: Force per unit mass
5. Gravitational Force: Force acting between two masses
6. Gravitational potential: Work done per unit mass in moving a mass from infinity to
any specified point within the gravitational field
7. Gravitational Potential energy: Work done on a body to move it from infinity to any
defined point within the gravitational field.
8. Properties of geostationary satellites for earth:
• Time period = 24 hours
• West to east
• Remains directly above the equator
9. Geostationary Satellite: Satellites that have the same angular velocity as that of the
planet and are moving in the same direction as the planet rotates.
10. Escape Velocity: The minimum speed required for a body to escape the gravitational
pull of planet and reach infinity.

Formulas for Gravitation:

𝐺𝑀1 𝑀2
𝐹𝑔 =
𝑟2
Fg = Gravitational Force (N)

G = Universal Gravitational constant (6.67 x 10-11 Nm2kg-2)

M1 = Mass of first planet (kg)

 M2 = Mass of 2nd planet (kg)

r = separation between the two masses (m)

𝐺𝑀1
𝑔=
𝑟2
g = gravitational field strength (ms-2)

𝐺𝑀1 𝑀2
𝑈𝑝 = −
𝑟
Up = gravitational potential energy (J)

𝐺𝑀1
∅=−
𝑟
∅ = gravitational potential (J/kg)

For orbital motion:

𝐹𝑔 = 𝐹𝑐

4𝜋 2 𝑟 3
𝑇2 =
𝐺𝑀

Escape Velocity:

2𝐺𝑀
𝑢=√
𝑅
Graphs for Gravitation:
• Gravitational force(F) vs distance from center (r)

➢ Force is related to distance using inverse square law.

➢ Force is zero inside the sphere.

• Gravitational Field Strength(g) Vs Distance from Center (r)

➢ Inverse square law outside the sphere

➢ Inside the sphere gravitational field strength varies linearly.
• Gravitational Field Strength between two planets:

➢ If null point exists in middle then both the masses are same. However, if the
null point is tilted towards one side, then that side has the lower mass!!
(Completely new question that can be tested in exams)

• Graph of gravitational potential (∅) vs Distance from center (r)

➢ Gravitational potential is negative throughout

➢ Gravitational potential becomes constant inside the surface
 • Gravitational Potential Between 2 planets:

➢ Negative throughout
➢ At the maximum point the gradient is zero, hence gravitational field strength is
zero at this point. This is the null point.
➢ If null point exists in middle then both the masses are same. However, if the null
point is tilted towards one side, then that side has the lower mass!!
(Completely new question that can be tested in exams)

Tips for Examinations:

Key note 1: Whenever a satellite or a planet is orbiting another planet centripetal force
will be equal to the gravitational force.
Key note 2: When an object is moving towards a planet the loss in Gravitational potential
energy will be equal to the gain in Kinetic energy.
Key note 3: When an object is moving away from the planet the loss in KE will be equal
to the gain in Gravitational Potential Energy.
Key note 4: whenever loss in energy is written you will add a negative sign.
Key note 5: change in energy/any variable = Final value – Initial value.
Key note 6: Gravitational field is always attractive; arrows will always point inwards.
Key note 7: Memorize the 3-marker answer of why gravitational potential/gravitational
potential energy is negative.
Key note 8: Null point occurs when the gravitational field strength of both the planets is
equal and in opposite directions.

Chapter #3 - Temperature:

1. Thermal Equilibrium: No net energy transfer between the bodies.

2. Specific Heat Capacity: Thermal energy required per unit mass per unit change in
temperature.
3. Specific latent heat: Thermal per unit mass required to change the state at constant
temperature.
4. Specific latent heat of fusion: Thermal energy per unit mass to change the state from
solid to liquid at constant temperature.
5. Specific Latent of Vaporization: Thermal energy per unit mass to change the state
from liquid to gas at constant temperature.
6. How does thermometer measures temperature?
The thermometer makes use of a physical property which changes continuously with
temperature. The physical property is referred to as thermometric property.
Comparing Thermometers:

Formulas for Temperature:

Specific Heat Capacity:

𝑄 = 𝑚𝑐∆𝜃
Q = Heat Supplied (J)

m = mass (kg)

c = specific heat capacity (J/kg0C)

∆𝜽 = 𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒆𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 (C)

Heat Capacity:

𝑄 = 𝐶∆𝜃
Q = Heat Supplied (J)

c = specific heat capacity (J/c)

∆𝜽 = 𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒆𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 (C)

Latent heat of Fusion:

𝑄 = 𝑚𝑙𝑓

Q = Heat Supplied (J)

m = mass (kg)

𝑙𝑓 = Specific Latent heat of fusion (J/kg)

Latent heat of Vaporization:

𝑄 = 𝑚𝑙𝑣

Q = Heat Supplied (J)

m = mass (kg)

𝑙𝑣 = Specific Latent heat of Vaporization (J/kg)

Formula for Liquid in Glass thermometer:

𝐿𝑄 − 𝐿0
𝑄=
𝐿100 − 𝐿0

Q = unknown temperature (0C)

𝐿𝑄 = Length of mercury at temperature of Q

𝐿0 = Length of mercury at temperature of 0 0C

𝐿100 = Length of mercury at temperature of 100 0C

Formula for Thermocouple thermometer:

𝑉𝑄 − 𝑉0
𝑄=
𝑉100 − 𝑉0

Q = unknown temperature (0C)

𝑉𝑄 = EMF at temperature of Q

𝑉0 = EMF at temperature of 0 0C

𝑉100 = EMF at temperature of 100 0C

Formula for Resistance thermometer:

𝑅𝑄 − 𝑅0
𝑄=
𝑅100 − 𝑅0

Q = unknown temperature (0C)

𝑅𝑄 = Resistance at temperature of Q

𝑅0 = Resistance at temperature of 0 0C

𝑅100 = Resistance at temperature of 100 0C

Graphs for Temperature:
• Graph of Energy(Q) vs Change in temperature (∆𝑇)

Tips for Examination:

Key note 1: Heat always flows from higher temperatures to lower temperatures.
Key note 2: Whenever temperature changes use the formula of specific heat capacity and
when state changes use the formulas of latent heat.
Key note 3: Please please for the love of God do review the experiments on how to calculate
specific latent heat of vaporization and specific latent heat of fusion.
Key note 4: Thermometers and their physical properties:

Thermometers Physical Property

Liquid in glass Change in volume
Thermocouple Emf
Resistance Thermometer Resistance

Key note 5: Liquid in glass thermometer cannot measure thermodynamics temperature as it

is based on the properties of a liquid and not on the properties of an ideal gas.
Key note 6: A non-linear scale makes is discouraged because different reading of
temperature will give the same reading of physical property.

Chapter #4 - Ideal Gases:

1. Internal energy: is the microscopic sum of potential energy and kinetic energy of
particles in random motion
2. Internal of an ideal gas is only equal to kinetic energy as potential energy is zero for
ideal gases due to negligible intermolecular forces. Since Kinetic energy of molecules
solely depend on temperature the internal energy of the gas will also solely depend
on temperature.
3. Avogadro Constant: Number of particles pr unit amount of substance.
4. Mole: The mole is the amount of substance which contains as many particles as
there are atoms in 12 grams of carbon 12
 5. Ideal gas: A gas that obeys PV ∝ T.
P = Pressure of the gas
V = Volume of the gas
T = Thermodynamic Temperature
6. Assumptions of Kinetic Theory of gases:

7. Elastic Collision: No loss of Kinetic Energy

8. Two formulas for ideal gases:
PV=NKT (Used when you have to find number of molecules)
PV=nRT (Used when you have to find number of moles)

Formulas for Ideal Gas:

Boyle’s Law:

𝑃1 𝑉1 = 𝑃2 𝑉2
P1 = initial Pressure (Pa)

V1 = initial Volume (m3)

P2 = Final Pressure (Pa)

V2 = Final Volume (m3)

Ideal Gas Equation:

𝑃𝑉 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇
P = Pressure of Gas (Pa)

V = Volume of Gas (m3)

n = number of moles

R = Universal Molar Gas Constant (8.31 J/Kmol)

T = Absolute Temperature (K)

𝑃𝑉 = 𝑁𝑘𝑇
N = number of molecules

k = Boltzmann Constant (1.38 x 10-23)

Pressure on a Gas:

𝜌 < 𝑐2 >
𝑃=
3
P = Pressure of the gas (Pa)

𝜌 = density of gas (kgm-3)

< 𝑐 2 > = mean square speed of gas molecules

Kinetic energy of Ideal Gas:

3𝑘𝑇
𝐸𝑘 =
2
Graphs for Ideal Gases:
• Graph of Pressure Vs Volume

• Graph of Volume Vs Temperature

Tips for Examination:
3𝑘𝑇
Key note 1: the formula 𝐾𝐸 = 2 gives the kinetic energy of one molecule.
Key note 2: Kinetic energy can also be calculated using this formula

𝑚 < 𝑐2 >
𝐾𝐸 =
2

m = mass of one molecule

2
< 𝑐 > = mean square speed of molecules.

𝑃𝑉
Key note 3: if the 𝑇 ratio is constant for a gas then it is an ideal gas.
Key note 4: Review the derivations at the last pages of notes.

Chapter #5 - Thermodynamics:

1. First law of thermodynamics has 2 forms/ways to express:

Q = 𝛥 𝑈 + 𝑊𝑏𝑦
Q = thermal energy supplied
𝛥 𝑈 = 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
𝑊𝑏𝑦 = 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑎𝑠

𝛥 𝑈 = 𝑄 + 𝑊𝑜𝑛
Q = thermal energy supplied
𝛥 𝑈 = 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
𝑊𝑜𝑛 = 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑎𝑠
2. During expansion, Work done by the gas is positive and work done on the gas is
negative.
3. During compression, work done on the gas is positive and work done by the gas is
negative.
4. For an ideal gas:
• If pressure is constant and volume decreases then temperature will also
decrease.
• If the pressure is constant and volume increases then temperature also
increases.
Both the above assumptions are based on Charles law that is Volume
becomes directly proportional to temperature when pressure is constant.
• If volume is constant and pressure increases then temperature increases as
well.
• If volume is constant and pressure decreases then temperature decreases as
well.
Both the above assumptions are based on Pressure law that is Pressure
becomes directly proportional to temperature when volume is constant.
 Chapter #6 - Oscillations:

1. Natural Frequency: Frequency at which body vibrates when there is no resistive force
acting on the body.
2. Forced/driving Frequency: Frequency at which object is made to vibrate.
3. Simple Harmonic Motion: Motion in which acceleration is directly proportional to
displacement. Moreover, the direction of acceleration is opposite to the direction of
displacement.
4. Damping: Loss of energy of the system due to resistive forces.
5. Light Damping: Amplitude of vibration decreases gradually to zero after multiple
vibrations
6. Critical Damping: Amplitude of vibration decreases to zero rapidly.
7. Heavy damping: Amplitude of vibration decreases to zero gradually after a quarter of
a cycle.
8. Kinetic energy is maximum at mean position in a simple harmonic motion
9. Potential energy is maximum at extreme positions In simple harmonic motion.
10. Resonance: Maximum amplitude of vibration when forced/driving frequency equals
the natural frequency.

Formulas for Oscillations:

𝑎 = −𝑤 2 𝑥
a = acceleration (m/s2)

w = angular velocity (rad/s)

x = displacement (m)

If motion starts from maximum displacement:

Displacement:

𝑥 = 𝑥0 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑤𝑡
x = displacement at time t (m)

w = angular velocity (rad/s)

xo = amplitude or maximum displacement (m)

t = time (s)

Velocity:

𝑣 = −𝑣0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑤𝑡
v = velocity at time t (m/s)

vo = amplitude or maximum velocity (m/s)

Acceleration:

𝑎 = −𝑎0 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑤𝑡
a = acceleration at time t (m/s2)

ao = amplitude or maximum acceleration (m/s2)

If motion starts from mean position:

Displacement:

𝑥 = 𝑥0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑤𝑡
x = displacement at time t (m)

w = angular velocity (rad/s)

xo = amplitude or maximum displacement (m)

t = time (s)

Velocity:

𝑣 = 𝑣0 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑤𝑡
v = velocity at time t (m/s)

vo = amplitude or maximum velocity (m/s)

Acceleration:

𝑎 = −𝑎0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑤𝑡
a = acceleration at time t (m/s2)

ao = amplitude or maximum acceleration (m/s2)

Velocity at any point:

𝑣 = ±𝑤√𝑥02 − 𝑥 2

KE at any point in Simple harmonic Motion:

𝑚𝑤 2 (𝑥02 − 𝑥 2 )
𝑬𝒌 =
𝟐
Maximum Kinetic energy in Simple Harmonic Motion:

𝑚𝑤 2 𝑥02
𝑬𝒌 =
𝟐
Total Energy:

𝑚𝑤 2 𝑥02
𝑻𝑬 =
𝟐
Potential energy:

𝑚𝑤 2 𝑥 2
𝑬𝒑 =
𝟐
Graphs for Oscillations:
• Graph of displacement, velocity and acceleration:

• Graph of velocity vs displacement:

• Graph of Total energy, Potential Energy and Kinetic energy:

• Resonance Graph:
 • Damping a Resonance Graph:

• Types of damping:

➢ Light Damping: Amplitude of vibration decreases gradually to zero after

multiple vibrations
➢ Critical Damping: Amplitude of vibration decreases to zero rapidly.
➢ Heavy damping: Amplitude of vibration decreases to zero gradually after a
quarter of a cycle.

Tips for Examination:

𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚−𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚
Key note 1: Amplitude = 2
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚+𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚
Key note 2: Mean position = 2
Key note 3: Resultant force acts in the direction of acceleration and opposite to
displacement for simple harmonic motion.
 Chapter #7 - Electric Field:

1. Coulomb’s law: Electric force between two-point charges is directly proportional to

the product of charges and inversely proportional to the square of separation
between them.
2. What is indicated by the direction of electric field lines: Direction of force on a
positive charge.
3. Electric Field Strength: Force per unit positive charge
4. Electric Potential: Work done per unit positive charge in moving a positive charge
from infinity to any defined point within the electric field.
5. Electric Potential energy: Work done in moving a positive charge from infinity to any
point in the electric field.
6. Negative gradient of electric potential graph is equal to electric field strength.
7. 4 cases to remember:
• When like charges move close to each other there is a gain in EPE and loss in
KE
• When like charges move away from each other there is a loss of EPE and gain
in KE
• When unlike charges move close to each other there is a gain in KE and loss in
EPE
• When unlike charges move away from each other there is a loss in KE and
gain in EPE.
8. Electric Field Strength between parallel plates:
𝑉
𝐸=
𝑑
E = Electric Field Strength (V/m)
V = Voltage between the plates (V)
d = distance between the plates (cm)
9. Electric force between parallel plates:
𝐹 = 𝐸𝑞
F = Electric Force (N)
E = Electric Field Strength (V/m)
q = charge (C)

Formulas for Electric Fields:

𝑘𝑞1 𝑞2
𝐹𝑒 =
𝑟2
Fg = Electric Force (N)

k = 8.99 X 109

q1 = First charge (C)

q2 = 2nd charge (C)

r = separation between the two charges (m)

𝑘𝑞1
𝐸=
𝑟2
 E = Electric field strength (N/C)

𝑘𝑞1
𝑉=
𝑟
V = Electric Potential (V)

𝑘𝑞1 𝑞2
𝐸𝑝 =
𝑟
Ep = Electric Potential Energy (J)

Graphs for Electric fields:

• Electric Field Strength (E) Vs Distance from center (r):
• Electric Field Strength between unlike Charges:

➢ In case of unlike charges, the electric field graphs have a minimum/maximum point
but electric field strength is never zero.
• Electric Field Strength between like Charges:

• In case of like charges, the total electric field strength does become zero at a point
known as null point.
• If the null point is in the middle, then the magnitude of both charges is the same.
• Electric Potential Vs the distance graph:

• Electric Potential between like charges:

➢ In case of like charges, electric potential has a minimum/maximum but never zero
➢ In case of like charges, minimum/maximum points of electric potential represent
point of zero electric field strength.
➢ In case of like charges, minimum/maximum points of electric potential lie in the
middle then that represents that the magnitude of charge is same.
• Electric Potential between unlike charges:

➢ In case of unlike charges, the electric potential graph can become zero.
➢ In case of unlike charges if the electric potential graph, then the charges are
unlike but have same magnitude.
 Chapter #8 - Magnetic Field:

1. Magnetic Field: A region of space where a current carrying conductor/moving

charge/another magnet experiences a force.
2. Magnetic Flux Density: Force per unit length per unit current when current is
perpendicular to the magnetic field.
3. Tesla: Newton per unit ampere per unit meter where current is perpendicular to the
magnetic field.
4. Like currents attract however unlike currents repel.
5. Magnetic Flux: Product of magnetic flux density and area where magnetic flux
density is perpendicular to area.
6. Magnetic Flux linkage: Product of magnetic flux density, area and the number of
turns. Magnetic flux density must be perpendicular to area.
7. Faraday’s law of electromagnetic Induction: Induced emf is directly proportional to
the rate of change of magnetic flux/magnetic flux linkage.
8. Lenz’s Law: Direction of induced emf is such that it opposes the change causing it.
9. Semiconductors: Group 4 elements whose conductivity has been modified using a
process known as doping.
10. N type semiconductor: Group 4 element doped with group 5 element. Majority
charge carriers are electrons.
11. P type semiconductors: Group 4 elements doped with group 3 elements. Majority
charge carriers are holes (positively charged)
12. Hall probe: A device used to measure the magnetic flux density.
13. Velocity selector: A region where magnetic field and electric field are applied
perpendicular to each other so that both the magnetic and electric forces balance
each other. The electron passes undeflected.

Formulas for Magnetic Fields:

Magnetic Flux Density(B):
𝐹 = 𝐵𝐼𝐿𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
F = Magnetic Force (N)
B = Magnetic Flux Density (T)
I = Current in the wire (A)
L = length of the wire (m)
Magnetic Flux Density(B) around a current carrying wire:
𝜇0 𝐼
𝐵=
2𝜋𝑥
𝜇0 = 4𝜋 𝑋 10−7
x = distance from magnetic field (m)
Force on Charged Particles:
𝐹 = 𝐵𝑞𝑣
q = Charge on the particle (C)
v = velocity of the particle (m/s)

Hall Voltage (𝑽𝑯 ):

𝐵𝐼
𝑉𝐻 =
𝑛𝑡𝑒
n = number of electrons
 B = Magnetic Flux Density (T)
I = Current (A)
t = thickness (m)
e = charge on an electron (C)

Faraday’s Law:
𝑁∆∅
𝑉=
∆𝑡
∆∅ = 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥
N = Number of Turns
V = emf induced
∆𝑡 = 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒

Graphs for Magnetic fields:

Key point: Graph of emf depends on the gradient of magnetic flux density vs time.

Example 1:

Corresponding emf graph:

Example 2:

Corresponding emf graph:

Tips for Examination:

Key note 1: Always remember that while applying Fleming’s left hand rule the second finger
represents the direction of the current.
Direction of current = Direction of positive charges
Direction of Current = opposite to the direction of negative charges.
Key note 2: The only way to get good at this chapter is to practice more past papers. Watch
the topical live streams for magnetic fields.

Chapter #9 - Capacitance:
1. Capacitance: Charge on one plate divided by the potential difference between the
two plates.
2. Functions of Capacitors:
• Smoothing
• Time Delay
• Tuning
• Oscillator
• Temporary power supply
• Blocking dc
• Surge protection
3. Time constant: Time taken for the value of current/voltage/charge to drop to 37
percent of its initial value.
4. The greater the value of capacitor the more slowly it discharges.
Formulas for Capacitance:

𝑄
𝐶=
𝑉
C = Capacitance (F)

Q = Charge (C)

V = Voltage (V)

Energy Stored in a capacitor:

𝑉𝑞 𝐶𝑉 2
𝐸𝑐 = =
2 2
Capacitors in Series:

1 1 1 1
= + +
𝐶𝑡 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶3
Capacitors in Series:

𝐶𝑡 = 𝐶1 + 𝐶2 + 𝐶3

Discharge Equations:

Time constant:

𝝉 = 𝑹𝑪

𝝉 = 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 (𝒔)

R = Resistance

C = Capacitance
Capacitance of a Charged Sphere:

Chapter #10 - Alternating current:

1. Root Mean Square Current: The value of direct current that produces the same
amount of power as alternating current.
2. Root Mean square voltage: The value of direct voltage that produces the same
amount of power as the alternating voltage.
3. Rectification: Converting Alternating current into direct current
4. Half wave Rectification: Voltage in one direction is removed
5. Full wave Rectification: Voltage in one direction is reversed.
6. Smoothing: The reduction in the variation of the output voltage or current by adding
a single capacitor with capacitance C is connected in parallel with a load resistor of
resistance R
7. Forward biased condition: A diode is considered to be forward biased if the anode
(positive terminal of diode) is connected to the positive terminal of the battery.
8. Reverse Biased condition: A diode is said to be in reverse biased condition if the
cathode (negative terminal) of the diode is connected to the positive terminal of
battery.
Formulas for Alternating Current:

𝑉 = 𝑉0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑤𝑡
V = Voltage at time t (V)

w = angular velocity (rad/s)

Vo = amplitude or maximum voltage (V)

t = time (s)
 𝐼 = 𝐼0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑤𝑡
I = Current at time t (A)

w = angular velocity (rad/s)

Io = amplitude or maximum current (A)

t = time (s)

𝑉0
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 =
2
Vrms = root mean square Voltage (V)

𝐼0
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 =
2

Irms = root mean square Current (A)

𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑃𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 =
2
Pmean = Mean Power

Pmax = Maximum Power

Graphs for alternating current:

• Smoothing Graph:
Tips for Examination:
Key note 1: The formulas for Mean power, Root mean square Voltage and Root mean square
current are for sinusoidal curve. However, if the wave is not sinusoidal you will calculate the
mean power using this formula:
𝑃𝑚𝑖𝑛 + 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥
Pmean = 2

Key note 2: power mean for full wave rectification:

𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥
2
Key note 2: power mean for half wave rectification:
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥
4
 Chapter #11 - Quantum Physics:

1. Photon: Quantum of energy of electromagnetic radiation

2. Photoelectric Effect: Emission of electrons from the surface of a metal when
electromagnetic radiations are incident.
3. Threshold Frequency: Minimum frequency of electromagnetic radiation that can
cause an emission of electron.
4. Work Function: Minimum energy of photon required to remove an electron from the
surface.
5. Threshold wavelength: Maximum wavelength of electromagnetic radiation that can
cause an emission of electron.
6. Electron volt: Energy gained by an electron when it moves through a potential
difference of 1V
7. De Broglie Wavelength: Wavelength of electron based on the momentum of
electron.

Formulas for Quantum Physics:

ℎ𝑐
𝐸= = ℎ𝑓
𝜆
E = Energy of photon (J)

h = Plank’s Constant = 6.63 x 10-34

c = speed of light = 3 X 108 m/s

𝜆 = wavelength of light (m)

f = frequency of light (Hz)

Energy of Photon:

𝐸𝑝 = ∅ + 𝐸𝑘

𝑚𝑣 2
ℎ𝑓 = ℎ𝑓0 +
2
Ep = Energy of incident photon (J)

∅ = 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝐽)

Ek = Kinetic Energy of electron emitted (J)

f0 = threshold frequency (Hz)

De Broglie’s Wavelength:

ℎ
𝜆=
√2𝑚𝑉𝑞
m = mass of electron (kg)

q = charge of electron (C)

Graphs For Quantum Physics:
• Kinetic Energy Vs Frequency:

• Frequency vs Current:

• Kinetic energy vs Intensity:

• Current Vs Intensity:

• Kinetic energy Vs 1/wavelength:

• Sample Question
 • Sample Question:

Tips for Examination:

Keynote 1: Remember to revise the characteristics of photoelectric effect.
Key note 2: Kinetic energy increases as frequency increases however kinetic energy remains
same even if intensity increases.
Key note 3: Increased intensity results in increased photoelectric current!
Key note 4: Revise how photoelectric effect rejects the wave nature of light.
Key note 5: When an electron goes from higher energy level to lower energy level it emits a
photon.
Key note 6: When an electron goes from lower energy level to higher energy level it absorbs
a photon.
Key note 7: Revise Emission line spectra and Absorption line spectra.
Key note 8: The diffraction rings of electron decrease in size and come closer when either
the accelerating voltage is increased or the speed of electrons is increased.
 Chapter #12 - Nuclear Physics:

1. Radioactive Decay: Emission of particles from the nucleus of an unstable element.

The emissions are random and spontaneous.
2. Random Nature of Radioactive Decay: Cannot predict when a particular nucleus will
decay
3. Spontaneous nature of radioactive decay: Not affected by external environment such
as pressure and temperature.
4. Mass Defect: the difference between the sum of mass of nucleons separated till
infinity and the mass of the nucleus.
5. Binding energy of nucleus: Minimum energy required to separate the nucleons till
infinity
6. The greater the binding energy per nucleon the more stable a nucleus is.
7. A reaction is only feasible if the:
• Energy of products is greater than the energy of reactants
• Mass of reactants is greater than the mass of products.
8. Radioactive Decay constant: Probability of a nucleus to decay per unit time.
9. Radioactive Half Life: Time for number of nuclei/atoms to halve.
Time for activity to halve.
10. Activity: The rate of radioactive radiations emitted from the nucleus of an atom.
11. Count Rate: Number of radiations detected per unit time.
12. Nuclear Fusion: Two small nuclei combine together to form a large nucleus.
13. Nuclear fission: A large nuclei divides to form smaller nuclei.
14. Gamma Radiation: Photons of electromagnetic radiation emitted from nuclei

Formulas for Nuclear Physics:

Binding Energy:
∆𝐸 = ∆𝑚𝑐 2
∆𝐸 = Binding energy (J)
∆m = mass defect (kg)
Activity:
𝑁 = 𝑁0 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡
N = Current Number of Nucleus
𝑁0 = 𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑁𝑢𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑢𝑠
𝜆 = 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
t = time (s)

Half Life:
𝑙𝑛2
𝑡1/2 =
𝜆
Graph for Nuclear Physics:
• Sample Question

• Sample Question:
 • Sample Question:

Medical Physics:

1. Radioactive tracer: Substance containing radioactive nuclei that is introduced inside

the body.
2. Annihilation: A particle interacting with anti-particle so that mass converts into
energy.
3. Specific Acoustic Impedance: Product of Density of the medium and speed of
ultrasound in that medium
4. Attenuation: Reduction in energy of wave due to absorption as it travels through a
material

Formulas for Medical Physics:

𝑍 = 𝜌𝐶
𝑍 = 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝐼𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 (𝑘𝑔𝑚−2 𝑠 −1 )
𝜌 = density (kg/m3)

C = speed of ultrasound in material (m/s)

Intensity Reflection Coefficient (∝):

𝐼𝑇 (𝑍2 − 𝑍1 )2
∝= =
𝐼0 (𝑍2 + 𝑍1 )2
𝐼0 = Intensity of incident wave (W/m2)
 𝐼𝑇 = Intensity of transmitted wave (W/m2)

Z1 = Specific Acoustic Impedance of Material 1

Z2 = Specific Acoustic Impedance of Material 2

Attenuation of X-Rays/Ultrasound:

𝐼 = 𝐼𝑜 𝑒 −𝜇𝑥
𝐼0 = Intensity of incident wave (W/m2)

I = Intensity of reflected wave (W/m2)

𝜇 = the absorption coefficient (m-1)

X = distance moved through the material (m)

Tips for Examination:

Key note 1: Study the production of ultrasound and X-rays.
Key note 2: Revise how ultrasounds are detected.
Key note 3: Intensity Reflection coefficient tells us how much of the ultrasound will be
reflected.
Key note 4: Revise the process of PET scans.

Astronomy and cosmology:

1. Luminosity: Total power radiated by the star.

2. Wien’s Displacement Law: Wavelength of maximum intensity is inversely
proportional to temperature.
3. Standard candle: An astronomical object that has known luminosity.
4. Stefan Boltzmann Law: The total energy emitted by a black body per unit area per
second is proportional to the fourth power of absolute temperature.
5. Redshift: Increase in the observed wavelength of the light coming from a star that is
moving away from the observer.
6. Hubble’s Law: Speed to recession of galaxy is directly proportional to the distance
between the galaxy and the observer.

Formulas for Astronomy and Cosmology:

𝐿
𝐹=
4𝜋𝑑 2
𝐹 = Radiant Flux Intensity (W/m2)

L = Luminosity (W)

d = distance between planets (m)

Wein’s Displacement Law:

𝜆𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑇 = 2.9 𝑋 10−3 𝑚𝐾

Stefan-Boltz man Law:

𝐿 = 4𝜋𝑟 2 𝜎𝑇 4
𝜎 = 5.67 X 10-8

RedShift Formulas:

Hubble’s Law: