Hence 1 revolution is 0.

1sec
Use angular velocity formula
1. Motion in a Circle
2π
ω= = 62.8
0.1
​

1.1. Radians
Part (b)
Radian: one radian is the angle subtended at the center of Using relation between angular and linear velocity
the circle by an arc of length equal to the radius of the v = ωr = 62.8 × 0.2 = 12.6 ms-1
circle
Angular displacement: the angle through which an object
moves through a circle
1.3. Circular Motion
A body moving in a circle at a constant speed changes
s = rθ
velocity since its direction changes. Thus, it is accelerating
and hence experiences a force.
Centripetal force: resultant force acting on an object
moving in a circle, always directed towards the center of
the circle perpendicular to the velocity of the object

mv 2
F = = mrω 2
​

r
Centripetal acceleration: derived by equating Newton’s
2nd law and centripetal force

v2
a = rω 2 or a = r ​

Example:
A horizontal flat plate is free to rotate about a vertical axis
1.2. Angular Velocity through its center.

Angular velocity: the rate of change of the angular

position of an object as it moves along a curved path

θ
ω= ​

t
Period: the time taken by the body to complete the
circular path once

2π
ω= = 2πf
​

T
Relating angular velocity and linear velocity:

v = ωr
A mass M is placed on the plate, a distance d , 35cm, from
the axis of rotation. The speed of rotation is increased from
Example:
zero until the mass slides off the plate
The drum of a spin dryer has a radius of 20cm and rotates at
The maximum frictional force F between the plate and the
600 revolutions per minute.
mass is given by the expression
a. Show that the angular velocity is 63 rad s-1
b. Calculate, for a point on the edge of the drum, its linear F = 0.72W
velocity
Solution: Determine the maximum number of revolutions of per
Part (a) minute for the mass M to remain on the plate.
Find rate per second Solution:
The centripetal force on the particle is the frictional force so
600rev : 60sec the max speed is when friction is at max
Centripetal Force = Frictional Force
10rev : 1sec
 M v2 GMm
= 0.72W F =
r2
​

r
Manipulating expression by adding ω and removing M G : Gravitational Field Constant = 6.67 × 10 −11 Nm2kg -2
2
M (ωr) The gravitational force between two masses is
= 0.72M g​

independent of the medium separating the mass and is

r
always an attractive force
ω 2 r = 0.72g
Find the angular velocity {S05-P04} Question 1:
ω= 0.72×9.81
0.35 ​ ​ = 4.49 rad s-1 The orbit of the Earth, mass 6.0 × 10 kg, may be
24

Find radians covered in a minute using ratios assumed to be a circle of radius 1.5 × 10 11 m with the Sun
at its center, illustrated below. The time taken for one orbit is
4.49rad : 1sec 3.2 × 10 7 s.
269.5rad : 60sec

Divide radians covered by 2π to find revolutions

269.5
= 42.9
2π
​

a. Calculate the magnitude of the centripetal force acting on

∴ 42 revolutions min-1 the Earth
b. Determine the mass of the Sun

2. Gravitational Fields Part (a):

Solution:

Firstly, calculate the angular velocity of the earth

Gravitational field an example of a field of force
Gravitational field strength: gravitational force per unit 2π 2π
ω= = = 1.96 × 10 −7
mass 3.2 × 10 7
​ ​

T
Use centripetal force equation, F = mω 2 r
2.2. Describing a Gravitational Field
2
F = 6.0 × 10 24 × (1.96 × 10 −7 ) × 1.5 × 10 11
For an isolated point mass, the gravitational field is radial
in shape with the mass at the center F = 3.46 × 10 22 N
The gravitational field is described by the field lines. A Part (b):
field line is the path followed by a free unit mass in that The centripetal force is provided by the gravitational force of
gravitational field the sun ∴ using Newton’s inverse law
A higher density of field lines = a region of stronger field
GMm
3.46 × 10 22 =
r2
​

Substitute values into the expression

6.67 × 10 −11 × M × 6.0 × 10 24

3.46 × 10 22 =
(1.5 × 10 11 )2
​

M = 1.95 × 10 30

2.4. Gravitational Field Strength

The gravitational field strength at a point is the
gravitational force exerted per unit mass
By equating W = mg and Newton’s Law of Gravitation
2.3. Newton’s Law of Gravitation
GMm
Gravitational force between two-point masses is mg =
r2
​

proportional to the product of their masses & inversely

proportional to the square of their separation GM
∴g=
r2
​
 By equating W = mg and Newton’s Law of Gravitation V2 = GM
r ​

and for the linear velocity

2.5. Gravitational Potential
2π
v = ωr where ω = T ​ = 2πf
The gravitational potential at a point is work done per unit
mass in bringing a mass from infinity to the point If we combine them together the simplify them, then we will
get
GM
ϕ=−
T 2 = ( GM ) r3
2
4π
​

r ​

The negative sign is because:

Gravitational force is always attractive 2.8. Geostationary Orbits
Gravitational potential increases to zero at infinity
Gravitational potential decreases in direction of field Geostationary orbit:
Equatorial orbit
Period is 24hrs; same angular speed as Earth
From West to East; same direction of rotation as Earth
Geostationary satellite is one which always appears to be
above a certain point on the Earth
For a geostationary orbit: T = 24 hrs. and orbital radius is
a fixed value from the center of the Earth
However, mass of the satellite not fixed hence the k.e.,
g.p.e. and centripetal force are not fixed values
A geostationary satellite is launched from the equator in
the direction of rotation of the Earth (West to East) so that
On Earth’s surface, we can use the equation g.p.e= mgh the axis of rotation of the satellite & Earth coincide
however this is not true for masses far from Earth’s
surface because we assume g is constant {W05-P05} Question 1:
Gravitational potential energy of a mass m at a point in The Earth may be considered to be a sphere of radius
the gravitational field of another mass M , is the work 6.4 × 10 6 m with mass of 6.0 × 10 24 kg concentrated at
done in bringing that mass m from infinity to that point its center. A satellite of mass 650kg is to be launched from
the Equator and put into geostationary orbit.
GM a. Show that the radius of the geostationary orbit is 4.2 ×
U = mϕ = − m ​

r 10 7 m
The gravitational potential energy difference between two b. Determine the increase in gravitational potential energy of
points is the work done in moving a mass from one point the satellite during its launch from the Earth’s surface to the
to another geostationary orbit.
Solution:
ΔU = mϕfinal − mϕinitial
​ ​
Part (a):
Centripetal force provided by gravity ∴
2.6. Centripetal Acceleration GMm mv 2
=
r2
​ ​

For an orbiting satellite, the gravity provides centripetal r

force which keeps it in orbit ∴ GM = v 2 r
GMm mv 2 Using angular velocity, substitute v = ωr
=
r2
​ ​

r
GM GM = ω 2 r 2 × r
2
v =
Substituting ω = 2π
​

r
T ​

∴ velocity is independent of the mass of the satellite

4π 2
GM = × r3
T2
​

Orbiting Period The time period is always 24hours so in seconds

24 hours = 24 × 60 × 60
In the section of centripetal acceleration, we have come out Rearranging and substituting in values
that

G
 3 6.67 × 10 −11 × 6.0 × 10 24 × (86, 400 )2 3.2. Equation of State
r= 2
= 4.2 × 10 7
4π
​ ​

Ideal gas: a gas which obeys the ideal gas equation for all
Part (b): values of P , V and T
Using the following expression
pV = nRT
GM GM
ΔU = (− m) ​
− (− m) ​ ​ ​

where n = amount of substance (no. of moles)

r final r initial
Conditions for equation to be valid:
= GM (− )
m m
​
+ ​

fixed amount of gas

r final r initial
ideal gas
​ ​

Substitute values Boyle’s Law: P ∝ V1 hence pV

​
= constant
650 650
6.67 × 10 −11
× 6.0 × 10 24 × \n ( 6.4×10 6 ​ − 4.2 ​ × 10 7 ) Charles’s Law: V ∝ T hence VT ​ = constant
= 3.45 × 10 10 J
P1 V1 P2 V2
∴ =
​ ​ ​ ​

T1 T2
​ ​

2.9. Escape Velocity of a Satellite

​ ​

By conservation of energy, 3.3. Kinetic Theory of Gases

Initial K.E. + Initial G.P.E = Final = 0 Molecular movement causing pressure:

1 GMm Molecules hit and rebound off the walls of the container
mv 2 − =0 The change in momentum gives rise to force
2
​ ​

r
Many impulses averaged to give constant force and
2GM
Thus escape velocity = r ​
​ hence pressure
From observation of a smoke cell under a microscope, the
Escape velocity is the speed a satellite needs to escape Brownian motion of particles (haphazard, random)
the gravitational pull of a planet and get into orbit provides evidence of movement of gas molecules
however not used as it is a huge value and satellites have
engines so provide thrust to reach height of orbit
Basic Assumptions of the Kinetic Theory of Gases

2.10. Weightless Gas contains large no. of particles

Negligible intermolecular forces of attraction
An astronaut is in a satellite orbiting the Earth, reports that he Volume of particles negligible compared to container
is ‘weightless’, despite being in the Earth’s gravitational field. Collisions between particles are perfectly elastic
This sensation is because No time spent in collisions
Average k.e. directly proportional to absolute temp.
Gravitational force provides the centripetal force: the
gravitational force is equal to the centripetal force
3.4. Molecular Movement and Pressure
GMm mv 2
=
r2 Consider a cube of space with length L and a particle
​ ​

r
moving with velocity c
The sensation of weight (reaction force) is the difference
between FG and FC which is zero.
Therefore, astronaut feels weightless

3. Ideal Gases
3.1. The Avogadro Constant
Avogadro’s constant ( NA): number of atoms present in
12g of carbon-12 When particle collides with wall, velocity is reversed and
A mole: amount of substance containing same number of change in momentum is
particles as in 12g of carbon-12
Δp = m (c − (−c )) = 2mc
 Distance moved by particle is = L + L = 2L Substitute information given converting to standard units i.e.
Using speed-distance formula, time between collisions is m3 and Kelvin
2L 1.1 × 10 5 × 6.5 × 10 4 × (10 −2 )3
t= n= = 2.89
8.31 × (25 + 273)
​

c
​

Rate of change of momentum (i.e. force) is Use relationship between Avogadro’s constant NA and ​

Δp 2mc mc 2 number of moles n to find number of particles N

F = = 2L = ​ ​ ​

t c
L ​

N = NA × n​

Using above quantities to find pressure N = 6.02 × 10 23 × 2.89 = 1.75 × 10 24

2
F mc
mc 2 mc 2
P = = L2 = 3 =
4. Temperature
​

​ ​ ​ ​

A L L V
Rearrange to pV = mc 2
Temperature does not measure the amount of thermal
Considering N particles in 3D (hence the 13 ) with average
energy in a body:
​

speed c ,
Two objects of different masses made of the same
pV = 13 Nmc 2 or p = 13 ρc 2
​ ​
material at the same temperature would have
different amount of heat
Mean square velocity c 2 : mean value of the square of the When a substance melts or boils, heat is input but
velocities of the molecules there is not temperature change.

3.5. Kinetic Energy of a Molecule 4.2. Thermal Equilibrium

By equating the two formulae in pV , finding a Thermal energy is transferred from a region of higher
relationship between Ek and T ​
temperature to a region of lower temperature
Thermal equilibrium: a condition when two or more
1 objects in contact have the same temperature so there is
nRT = N m < c >2
3 no net flow of energy between them (NB not equal
​

3nRT internal energy because no. of molecules unknown)

= m < c >2 ​

Regions of equal temperature are in thermal equilibrium

N
Avogadro’s constant, NA ​ = N
n ​

4.3. Measuring Temperature

3RT 1
= m < c >2 A physical property that varies with temperature may be
2NA 2
​ ​

used for the measurement of temperature e.g.

​

Boltzmann’s constant, k = R Change in volume of a liquid or gas

NA ​

Change in pressure of a gas

​

3 Change in electrical resistance

kT = Ek
2 Change in e.m.f. of a thermocouple
​

Physical property should have the following qualities:

∴ T ∝ Ek
Change in property with temp. should be large enough
​

to be measured accurately
{S11-P41} Question 2 Value of temperature recorded should be
A balloon is filled with helium gas at a pressure of 1.1
× reproducible i.e. m.p. should be the same when
10 5 P a and a temp. of 25 °C. The balloon has a volume of measured a 2nd time
6.5 × 10 4 cm3 . Helium may be assumed to be an ideal gas. Property being used must be suitable over
Determine no. of gas atoms in the balloon. temperature range being measured
Solution: Should be able to be calibrated easily hence property
Firstly, calculate number of moles should change uniformly with temperature

pV = nRT 4.4. Thermodynamic Scale

pV
n= ​

Thermodynamic (Kelvin) scale: theoretical scale that is

RT
independent of properties of any particular substance.
 Based on idea that average k.e. of particles of a
5.2. Melting, Boiling and Evaporating
substance increase with temperature and the average
k.e. is same for all substances at a particular temp.
Melting Boiling Evaporation
K = ℃ + 273.15 Throughout substance On surface
Occurrence
Fixed temp./pressure All temps.
Absolute zero: temperature at which a system has Spacing & Increases Increases
minimum internal energy (not zero) – impossible to P.E. slightly significantly
remove any more energy – at 0 Kelvin
Temp. & Remaining liquid
Triple point of pure water: temp. at which water exists as Constant during process
K.E. cools
vapor, liquid and solid – at 273.16 Kelvin (0.01oC)

= average KE ∴ overall temperature decreases

4.5. Practical Thermometers
5.3. Specific Heat Capacity and Latent
Thermistor:
Heat
Advantages Disadvantages
Readings can be taken Non-linear variation with the Specific heat capacity: energy required per unit mass of
remotely temp. the substance to raise the temperature by 1 Kelvin
Very robust Narrower range E
Slower response time than c= ​

Fast response mΔθ

thermocouple
Determining Latent Heat of Vaporisation, c
Accurate Larger thermal capacity
Sensitive at low temps. Larger in size Quantities required:
Not suitable to measure Accurate measurement of mass
varying temp. Temperature at time intervals
Voltage and current supplied
Thermocouple:

Advantages Disadvantages
Readings can be taken Non-linear variation with the
remotely temp.
For accurate reading, a high
Faster response
resistance voltmeter required
Wider range
Small thermal capacity
Physically small – readings
taken at point
Power supply not need Measure temperature at regular time intervals and plot
graph of temperature θ against time t
Divide quantity of heat equation with time
5. Thermal Properties of Δθ
= mc ( )
E
Materials Δt Δt
​ ​

E
Δt is the power supplied P and P = V
​ I
5.1. Kinetic Model of Matter Δθ
Δt is the gradient of the graph plotted
​

Replacing quantities in original equation

Solid Liquid Gas
V I = mc × gradient
More
Completely
Structure Regular lattice disordered than Substitute values, rearrange and solve
disordered
solid Specific latent heat of fusion: energy required per unit
Attraction Strong Less than solid Negligible mass of a substance to change from solid to liquid phase
Vibrate about Translational Brownian – move without any change in temperature
Motion Specific latent heat of vaporization: energy required per
fixed point motion at high speeds
unit mass of a substance to change from liquid to gas
 phase without any change in temperature E
Δt is the power supplied P and P = V I
​

Δm
E Δt is the gradient of the graph plotted (use +ve)
​

lf /v ​ = ​

m Replacing quantities in original equation

Specific latent heat of vaporization always greater than
lv = power ÷ gradient
that of fusion for a given substance because:
​

During vaporization, greater increase in volume than Substitute values, rearrange and solve
in fusion; thus more work done against atmosphere
In vaporization, particles need to be separated further {S03-P04) Question 2:
apart than in fusion so more work is done against To harden a sample of pure gold, silver is mixed so that
forces of attraction when vaporizing mixture contains 5.0% silver by weight. The initial temp. of the
silver is 27 °C. Calculate the initial temp. of gold so that the
Determining Specific Heat Capacity, c final mixture is at the melting point of gold.

Quantities required:
Mass at time intervals
Voltage and current supplied

Solution:
As mass is not provided, we will consider a mixture of 100g
with the mass of gold 95g and silver 5g.
Firstly, calculate the energy required for silver to be at the
m.p. of gold

Q = mcΔT

0.005 × 235 × (1340 − (273 + 27 )) = 1222J

As silver is being heated past its m.p., it will also melt and
change state ∴ energy required to change it from solid to
liquid is required i.e. latent heat of fusion

Q = lf × m
​

105 × 10 3 × 0.005 = 525 J

The quantity of energy gold should initially have must provide
above calculated therefore
Q of Gold = 1222 + 525
Gold will already be past its m.p. so no need to calculate heat
of fusion, now using mcΔT

0.095 × 129 × ΔT = 1747

ΔT = 142.6

Initial temp. will obviously be above m.p. so adding to the final

temp. of gold i.e. the m.p.
Beaker containing water heated to 100oC and maintained Initial Temp. of Gold = 1340 + 142.6 = 1483 K
Mass readings taken at regular time intervals
Plot graph of mass m against time t 5.4. Internal Energy
If numerator and denominator in latent heat equation
divided by time: Internal energy: sum of random distribution of kinetic and
potential energies of molecules in a system
E
Δt
lv =
​

Δm ​

Internal Energy = Total P.E. + Total K.E.

Δt ​
 A rise in temperature of a body is an increase in its ΔU = Ep + EK
​ ​

internal energy
b) By reference to the first law and your answer in (a), show
that thermal energy must be supplied to the water during the
5.5. First Law of Thermodynamics boiling process

First law of thermodynamics: the increase in internal ΔU = q + w

energy of a system is equal to the sum of heat supplied to
the system and the work done on the system Changing from a liquid to a gas, there is an increase in
internal energy. Work is done by the liquid so w is negative.
ΔU = q + w For ΔU to be positive, q must increase.
ΔU : increase in internal energy of the system
Q : heat supplied to the system
W : work done on the system
6. Oscillations
6.1. Describing Oscillations
{S04-P04} Question 6:
Write down the symbol ‘+’ for increase, the symbol ‘–’ for Displacement (x): instantaneous distance of the moving
decrease and the symbol ‘0’ for no change, object from its mean position
Amplitude (A): maximum displacement from the mean
position
Period (T): time taken for one complete oscillation
Frequency (f ): number of oscillations per unit time
Angular frequency (ω): rate of change of angular
displacement

ω = 2πf

Phase difference (ϕ): measure of how much one wave is

Solution: out of step with another wave ϕ = 2π Tt ​

Part (i):
The gas is being compressed so work is being done on the where T is time period and t is time lag between waves
system (w = +) and when a gas is compressed, its
temperature rises. As the system is not providing heat, the 6.2. Simple Harmonic Motion
gas itself is heating, (q = −). Overall, increase in work done
is balanced by the gas heating so net remains 0 and internal Simple harmonic motion: acceleration proportional to
energy unchanged (U = 0) displacement and directed towards a fixed point
Part (ii): Requirements for SHM:
The solid is being heated so (q = +). As the solid is not Mass that oscillates
expanding, (w = 0) and therefore there is an increase in Position where mass in equilibrium
internal energy (U = +) Restoring force that acts to return mass to
Part (iii): equilibrium; F ∝ −x
The melting of ice requires heat energy provided so (q = +) Defining equation of SHM:
. No work is done on or by the system so
(w = 0). Hence, there is a net increase so (U = +)

{S02-P04} Question 2:
Some water in a saucepan is boiling.
a) Explain why:
i. external work is done by the boiling water
Volume increases due to evaporation (turns into a gas) hence
work is done on pushing back the atmosphere.
ii. there is a change in the internal energy as water changes
to steam
The Ek of atoms is constant as there is no temp. change but
Ep changes because separation of atoms increases so
internal energy increases because
 a = −ω 2 x
The negative sign in the equation represents that a and x
are in opposite directions. a is always directed towards
the mean position. 6.5. Energy in SHM

6.3. Equations of SHM

Displacement:

x = x 0 sin ωt
​ x = x 0 cos ωt
​

(depending on initial conditions)

Velocity:

Kinetic Energy:
v = ±ω (x 20 − x 2 )
v = ±ω (x 20 − x 2 ) Ek = 12 mv 2
​ ​

​ ​ ​ ​

v = v0 cos ωt
​ v = −v 0 sin ωt ​

1
Ek = mω 2 (x 20 − x 2 )
2
​ ​ ​

(differential simplified because x 0 ω = v0 )

​

Total Energy:
Maximum velocity at equilibrium position and minimum
At x = 0 , Ek is max and = to total energy
(0) at extremes
​

1
Acceleration: Ek = mω 2 (x 20 − (0)2 )
2
​ ​ ​

a = −ω 2 x 1
∴ Etot = mω 2 x 20
2
​ ​ ​

Noted that the minus sign shows that, when the object is
displaced to the right, the direction of its acceleration is to the Potential Energy:
left. Etot = Ek + Ep so Ep = Etot − Ek
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

a = −ω 2 (x 0 sin ωt) a = −ω 2 (x 0 cos ωt) 1 1

​ ​

= mω 2 x 20 − mω 2 (x 20 − x 2 )
2 2
​ ​ ​ ​

6.4. Graphs of SHM Ep =

1
mω 2 x 2
2
​

Graphs:
 Hence, substitute values into equation and calculate v
v = 28.3 × (11 2 − 3 2 ) = 0.30 ms-1
​

{W08-P04} Question 3:
The needle of a sewing machine oscillates vertically through 6.6. Damping
a total distance of 22 mm. The oscillations are simple
harmonic with a frequency of 4.5 Hz. The cloth being sewn is Damping: loss of energy and reduction in amplitude from
positioned 8.0 mm below the needle when the it is at its an oscillating system caused by force acting in opposite
maximum height. Calculate, for the point of the needle, direction to the motion (e.g. friction)
Light damping: system oscillates about equilibrium
1. its maximum speed
position with decreasing amplitude over a period of time
2. its speed as it moves downwards through the cloth

Critical damping: system does not oscillate & is amount of

Solution: damping required such that the system returns to its
Part (i): equilibrium position in the shortest possible time
Maximum speed can be calculated by Heavy damping: damping is so great that the displaced
object never oscillates but returns to its equilibrium
v0 = ωx 0
​ ​

position very very slowly

Firstly, we must find angular velocity

ω = 2πf = 2 × π × 4.5 = 28.3 rad s-1
Next, we must find the amplitude. As the total vertical
displacement is 22 mm,
x 0 = 22
2 = 11 mm
​

Substitute data calculate into first expression

v0 = 28.3 × 11 × 10 −3 = 0.311 ms-1
​

Part (ii):
To find the velocity at that point, use the equation
6.7. Practical Examples of Damping
v=ω (x 20 − x2 )
Car suspension:
​ ​

Oscillation: Car oscillates due to spring like connection

We need to find the displacement when the needle is passing
to wheels
through the cloth. From annotated diagram:
Damping: Critical damping needed to stop oscillation
as quickly as possible to avoid motion sickness –
hydraulic in nature
Tall buildings:
Oscillation: During earthquakes
Damping: Large weight hung at the top of the building
to supply a counter oscillation
 Tuning of radio receiver - natural frequency of radio is
6.8. Natural Frequency and Resonance
adjusted so that it responds resonantly to a specific
broadcast frequency
Natural frequency f0 : the unforced frequency of
Using microwave to cook food - produces microwaves of
​

oscillation of a freely oscillating object

frequency equal to natural frequency of water, causing
Free oscillation: oscillatory motion not subjected to an
the water molecules in food to vibrate generating heat
external periodic driving force; oscillates at natural freq.
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) is used in hospitals to
Eg : Tuning fork, Pendulum
create images of the human organs
Forced oscillation: oscillation caused by an external
driving force; frequency is determined by driving force Examples of Destructive Nature of Resonance:
Resonance: the maximum amplitude of vibration when
impressed frequency equals natural frequency of High-pitched sound waves can shatter fragile objects e.g.
vibration shattering of a glass when a soprano hit a high note
Buildings that vibrate at natural frequencies close to the
frequency of seismic waves collapse during earthquakes
A car suspension system vibrates when going over bumps
which would give large amplitude vibrations

7. Electric Fields
The electric field of a charge is the space around the
charge in which an electric force due to that charge is
experienced

6.9. Damping and Resonance Direction of field lines show the direction of the field –
always from the positive charge to the negative
Effects of damping on frequency response of a system Higher density of lines shows a stronger region of field
undergoing forced oscillations:
Decreases amplitude at all frequencies 7.2. Coulomb’s Law
Slightly decreases resonant frequency
Resonant peak becomes flatter Any two-point charges exert an electrical force on each
other that is proportional to the product of the charges
and inversely proportional to the square of separation
Qq
F ∝ r2 ​

Because they are proportional to each other, so in

kQ Q
mathematical way F = r12 2 which they show the same
​ ​

where k is the constant of proportionality.

1
The constant K is usually given in the form k = 4πε 0 ​
​

Noted that ε0 is the permittivity of free space. The

​

experimental value for ε0 is about 8.85 × 10 −12 Fm −1

​

Qq
So the equation for Coulomb’s Law is F = 4πεo r 2 where F
​
​

is the force between two charges, r is the distance

between their centres.

7.3. Electric Field of a Point Charge

6.10. Purposes of Resonance
Electric field strength: force per unit positive charge
Examples of Useful Purposes of Resonance: Dividing force by charge q :
Oscillation of a child's swing
 Q Calculate the maximum values of
E=
4πεo r 2
​

1. the charge that can be stored on the sphere

​

2. the potential at the surface of the sphere

7.4. Electric Potential
Solution:
Electric potential at a point is the work done in bringing Part (a):
positive unit charge from infinity to that point Max field strength given so using field strength formula

W = V Q and W = F .d Q
E=
4πεo r 2
​

F.d ​

V =
Substitute information given
​

Q
Q 1 Q
V = 2 × 10 6 = ×
4πεo r 4πεo 0.35 2
​
​ ​

​
​

The potential difference between two points A and B from Q = 2.7 × 10 −5 C

an isolated charge Q is defined as work done in taking a
unit positive charge from B to A Part (b):
Using charge calculate in potential equation
1 Q
2 × 10 6 = × Q
4πεo 0.35 2
​ ​

V =
4πεo r
​

Substitute information given

1 2.6 × 10 −5
V = ×
4πεo 0.35
​ ​

V = 7.0 × 10 5 V

7.5. Potential Due to a Conducting

1 1
( − )
Q Sphere
V AB =
4πε0 b
​ ​ ​ ​

a
​

A charge +Q on an isolated conducting sphere is

V AB is equal to the gain in electrical potential energy if Q
uniformly distributed over its surface
​

is positive and loss if Q is negative

Charge remains on surface and at all points inside the
In general, sphere, the field strength is 0

If -ve charge moved in direction of electric field, its electric

potential energy will decrease
If +ve charge moved in direction of electric field, its
electric potential energy will increase
If charge accelerated in the field, its electrical potential
energy will be converted to kinetic ∴ V q = 12 mv 2 ​

As there is no field inside the sphere, the potential

difference from any point inside the sphere to the surface
is zero. Therefore, the potential at any point inside a
charged hollow sphere is the same as its surface

{S06-P04} Question 2:
The maximum field strength at the surface of the sphere
before electrical breakdown (sparking) occurs is 2.0 × 10 6
Vm-1. The sphere has a radius r of 0.35m.
7.6. Equipotential
Equipotential surface: a surface where the electric
potential is constant
Equipotential lines are drawn such that potential is
constant between intervals
As potential constant, the potential gradient = 0, hence E
along surface = 0
8.2. Capacitance and Farad
Hence no work is done when a charge is moved along this
surface
Capacitance: the ratio of charge stored by a capacitor to
the potential difference across it
Farad (F): Unit of capacitance, 1 coulomb per volt.

Q
C= ​

V
Electric field lines must meet equipotential surface at The capacitance of a capacitor is directly proportional to
right angles the area of the plates and inversely proportional to the
Spacing will be closer when field is stronger distance between the plates

7.7. Similarity & Differences between 8.3. Dielectric Breakdown

Electric and Gravitational Potential An electric field can cause air to become conducting by:

Similarities: The electric field causes forces in opposite directions on

Ratio of work done to mass/charge the electrons and nucleus of atoms in air
Work done moving unit mass/charge from infinity This results in the field causing electrons to be stripped
Both have zero potential at infinity off the atom.
Differences: Results in a spark – air now contains oppositely charged
Gravitational forces are always attractive particles which can carry charge.
Electric forces can be attractive or repulsive
For gravitational, work got out as masses come
8.4. Capacitors in Parallel
together
For electric, work done on charges if same sign, work
got out if opposite sign as charges come together

8. Capacitance
8.1. Capacitors
By conservation of energy and hence charge ( W = QV ), the
Function: storing energy
total charge in a circuit is sum of individual charges
Usage: Time delay, power smoothing and protection
against surges and spikes QT = Q1 + Q2 + Q3
​ ​ ​ ​

Dielectric: an electrical insulator

Apply Q = C V and V constant in parallel
How a Capacitor Stores Energy:
Q T = V (C 1 + C 2 + C 3 )
On a capacitor, there is a separation of charge with +ve
​ ​ ​ ​

on one plate and –ve on the other. QT

= C1 + C2 + C3
​

To separate the charges, work must be done hence V

​ ​ ​ ​

energy is released when charges come together

Hence,

CT = C1 + C2 + C3
​ ​ ​ ​

8.5. Capacitors in Series

 W = CV 2
After the discharge, the sphere contains 25% of the energy
before so equating energy before and after
2
25% × C × (1.2 × 10 6 ) = C V 2
Cancel the C and calculate V

V = 6.0 × 10 5 V

8.7. Energy Stored in a Capacitor

Total p.d. in a circuit is sum of individual p.d.

VT = V1 + V2 + V3
​ ​ ​ ​

Apply Q = C V and Q constant in series

1 1 1
VT = Q (
​
+ + ) ​ ​ ​

C1 C2 C3 ​ ​ ​

VT 1 1 1
= + +
​

​ ​ ​ ​

Q C1 C2 C3 ​ ​

Hence,

1 1 1 1
= + +​ ​ ​ ​

CT C1 C2 C3 ​ ​ ​

Area under a potential-charge graph is equal to work

done
8.6. Capacitance of a Body
1 1
W = QV = C V 2
2 2
​ ​

Any isolated body can have a capacitance.

Considering a sphere of radius r carrying charge Q, the The half comes in because:
potential at surface is When the first charge flows onto the capacitor plates
there is no potential difference opposing the flow
Q
V = As more charge flows, the potential difference
4πεo r
​

increases, so more work is done

​

Q Q The average potential difference is equal to half the

C= = ​

Q ​ = 4πεo r ​

maximum potential difference

V 4πεo r ​
​

{W09-P42} Question 4:
An isolated metal sphere of radius 63cm is charged to a
9. Magnetic Fields
potential of 1.2 × 10 6 V. At this potential, there is an
electrical discharge in which it loses 75% of its energy. 9.1. Concept of Magnetic Field
1. Calculate the capacitance of the sphere
Magnetic field: a region in which a magnet, a wire
2. Calculate the potential of the sphere after the
carrying current or a moving charge experiences a force
discharge has taken place.
Can be produced by
Solution Current-carrying conductor
Part (a): Permanent magnets
Using equation derived above
9.2. Representing Magnetics Fields
C = 4π × 8.85 × 10 −12 × 63 × 10 −2
Magnetic Field due to Permanent Magnet
= 7.0 × 10 −11 Farad
Part (b):
Using equation for energy
 Magnetic field lines come out of the north pole and go into
the south pole
Direction of field line at any point in the field shows the
direction of the force that a ‘free’ magnetic north pole
would experience
Field is strongest where field lines closest together

9.3. Electromagnetism
Strength of magnetic field can be increased by:
For a solenoid and flat, circular coil:
Increasing the current Magnetic field pattern produced identical to that
Increasing number of turns per unit length of solenoid produced by a bar magnet
Using soft-iron core within solenoid Magnetic field lines within solenoid are parallel
indicating strength is same (uniform field)
Right Hand Grip Rule:

9.4. Determing Pole of Magnetic Field

For a long, straight conductor: Determined by Right Hand Grip rule however this time,
Magnetic field lines are concentric circles centered at fingers represent current
the conductor
Separation between adjacent field lines increases with
distance from the conductor
Magnetic field is non-uniform

9.5. Effect of Ferrous Core in Solenoid

The strength of the generated magnetic field can be
increased (by about 1000 times) by adding a ferrous (iron)
core inside the solenoid.
For a flat, circular coil:
Two possible reasons to explain this effect
Magnetic field pattern produced represents that
produced by a short bar magnet
Ferrous material has a higher permeability than air;
stronger ability to support the formation of a magnetic
field within itself
Ferrous material is magnetic and become magnetized
when placed into the solenoid, thus contributing to overall
magnetic field strength of the solenoid.
9.6. Force on a Current-Carrying
Conductor
Fleming’s Left Hand Rule

Force Acting on a Current-carrying Conductor in a Magnetic

Field

Can be worked out by considering one wire’s magnetic

field (using Right Hand Grip rule), drawing a tangent at the
position of the the other wire and then applying Fleming’s
Left Hand Rule

9.8. Magnetic Flux Density

Strength of force can be increased by: Magnetic flux ( Φ): product of (magnetic) flux density and
Increasing the current area where the area is perpendicular to the (magnetic)
Using a stronger magnet field. Unit = weber (Wb)
Magnetic flux density ( B): force acting per unit current on
9.7. Forces between Currents unit length of conductor placed at right angles to the
magnetic field

Φ = BA

1 Tesla is the magnetic field producing a force of 1 N m-1

on a wire carrying current of 1 A normal to the field

1T = 1 N A−1 m−1
The magnitude of the force on a current-carrying
conductor with:

F = BI L sin θ
Find direction using Fleming’s Left Hand Rule
If wire parallel to the field lines, θ = 0 and F
=0
= 90 and
If the wire is at right angles to field lines, θ
force acting on wire maximum ( F = BI L)

{W09-P42} Question 5:
Two long straight vertical wires X and Y pass through a
horizontal card, carrying current upward. The magnetic flux
density B at a distance x from a long straight wire due to a Q
F = BI l and I=
current I in the wire is given by
​

∴ F = Bq ( )
μ0 I l l
B=
​

​ and v= ​

2πx
​

t t
The current in wire X is 5.0 A and that in wire Y is 7.0 A. The ∴ F = BQv
separation of the wires is 2.5 cm
a) Calculate the force per unit length on wire Y due to the If particle moving at an angle θ to the magnetic field, the
current in wire X component of velocity ⊥ to magnetic field is v sin θ
b) The currents in the wires are not equal. State and explain
whether the forces on the two wires are equal in magnitude 9.11. The Hall Effect
Solution:
Part (a):
Using given expression, find B due to wire X by substituting
current in X and separation

4π × 10 −7 × 5
B= = 4 × 10 −5
2π × 2.5 × 10 −2
​

To find force per unit length, divide expression for force by

length and substitute values – calculated B from above and
current in Y

F = BI l ÷ l = BI
The Hall effect is a mechanism in which magnetic and
F electric forces on a moving charged particle are balanced
= 4 × 10 −5 × 7 = 2.8 × 10 −4
​

l The probe is made of semiconductor material as

Part (b): electrons travel faster in it than metal ∴ greater effect
The force due to the magnetic field depends on the product of A small current flow through the probe and a magnetic
the currents in the two wires hence both values would be field is applied so the electrons are pushed sideways by
the magnetic force, accumulating on one side hence
equal. Also, Newton’s 3rd law applied and the reaction force is
producing a small voltage; Hall voltage
equal but opposite.
The greater the flux density, greater the Hall voltage
If magnetic field direction is reversed, electrons pushed to
9.9. Measuring Flux Density opposite side and Hall voltage is reversed

The force on a current-carrying conductor can be used to

measure the flux density of a magnetic field using a
9.12. The Hall Voltage
current balance
An electric field is set up in the probe as there is a
difference in voltage between a distance d so

VH
E=
​

d
As a single electron travels with drift velocity v , it
experiences a force to the left due to the magnetic field
Bqv and a force to the right due to the electric field Eq
Soon an equilibrium is reached hence forces equated
Small weights = mg
Force due to current = BI l Eq = Bqv
Assuming forces act at same distance from pivot, so no need
to take moments, equate forces Substitute for E

mg = BI l qVH
= Bqv
​

mg d
B= Current is related to mean drift velocity by
IL
​

9.10. Force on a Moving Charge I = nAvq

where A = td is cross sectional area and n is number 1 rBe 2
density of conducting particles eV = me ( )
2
​ ​ ​

me ​

Substitute for v and rearrange e 2V

= 2 2
​ ​

qVH BqI me​ r B

=
​

​ ​

d n(td)q
9.15. Deflection of e- through E-Field
BI
VH =
ntq
​ ​

9.13. Deflection of e- through B-Field

Circular motion

Circular path
Ek constant

mv 2 mv
BQv = so r =
BQ
​ ​

r
Faster moving particles move in bigger circles, r ∝v
Determining the motion of the electron:
Heavier particle move in bigger circles, r ∝ m
1 1 2
Stronger field, particle moves in smaller circle, r ∝ B s = ut + at and initial vertical velocity = 0 ms−1
​

2
​

1
y = at2
2
​

Finding an equation for acceleration

F = qE and F = ma
eE
∴a= ​

m
As particle moving horizontally at constant velocity and time
is the same for the whole journey
x
x = vt t= ​

v
9.14. Charge-to-Mass Ratio eE
y=( ) .x 2
2mv 2
​

The charge-to-mass ratio is known as the specific charge

on the electron
Hence, y ∝ x 2 therefore parabolic (projectile) motion
e Gain in y -component of velocity ∴ Ek increases
Determination of me : ​
​

Work done by an electron is equivalent to Ek it possesses 9.16. Crossed-Fields

1
W = QV Ek = mv 2 Considering a setup where electric and magnetic field are
2
​ ​

perpendicular to each other and act on a moving charge

1 simultaneously
eV = me v 2
2 In such case, a certain velocity exists where fields exert
​ ​

equal and opposite forces.

Using equation for an electron travelling in a circle in a
magnetic field to eliminate v B-Field = E-Field
rBe BQv = QE
v= ​

me ​

E
v= ​

B
 no. of field lines being cut change
e.g. moving coil from A to B

no. of lines linked increases from 3 to 5

no. of lines cut increases from 0 to 2

Hence an e.m.f. is induced

If velocity higher, F = BQv hence magnetic force
stronger & effect of force due to electric field decreases 10.2. Magnetic Flux Linkage
If velocity lower, F = BQv hence magnetic force
weaker & effect of force due to electric field increases Magnetic flux: product of magnetic flux density and area
normal to the field through which the field is passing.
9.17. Force in Gravitational, Electric and
ϕ = BA
Magnetic Fields
1 Weber (Wb) is the flux that passes through an area of
Gravitational Electric Magnetic 1m2 when the magnetic flux density is 1 tesla.
Force always
Forces is attractive or repulsive 1 Wb = 1 T m2
attractive
Force directly Force directly Force directly Magnetic flux linkage: product of magnetic flux and
proportional to the proportional to the proportional to the number of turns
mass charge current
Force inversely proportional to square of the distance Magnetic flux linkage = Nϕ
Force independent Factors affecting magnitude of induced e.m.f.
Force depends on the medium
of the medium Magnetic field density, B
Force is weak Force is strong Speed of motion of magnet, v
Force is in direction Force is parallel to Force is perp. to the Number of turns of coil, N
of field the field field

Force independent of state of motion of

Force directly 10.3. Faraday’s and Lenz’s Law
proportional to
the body
velocity of body Faraday’s Law: the magnitude of induced e.m.f is
proportional to rate of change of magnetic flux-linkage
charged and there is no force on the mass when it is
stationary or moving in a particular direction,
dNϕ
V =
dt
​

*Magnetic field*
Lenz’s Law: the direction of the induced e.m.f. is such that
it tends to oppose the flux change causing it
10. Electromagnetic −dNϕ
V =
Induction dt
​

10.1. Inducing e.m.f

EM induction is an action-at-a-distance phenomenon
e.m.f. is induced when magnetic flux linking a conductor
change either by
no. of lines linking B-field changes
 average e.m.f induced.
Solution:
Part (a):
Maximum torque when parallel. When normal to the plane,
there is no perpendicular distance between the two forces ∴
minimum/0 torque.
Part (b):
Torque = Force × ⊥ Distance between Forces

2.1 × 10 −3 = 2.8 × 10 −2 × x

x = 0.075N

Part (c):
Using force calculated previously, and information from
question
{S11-P42} Question 5:
Use Faraday’s Law to explain why 0.075 = B × 170 × 10 −3 4.5 × 10 −2

1. there is a reading on the voltmeter B = 9.80T

Moving magnet causes a change of flux linkage
Value calculated is for 140 turns so dividing by it
2. this reading varies in magnitude
Speed of magnet varies so varying rate of change of 9.80
flux = 0.0700T = 70mT
140
​

3. the reading has both positive and negative values

Magnet changes direction of motion Part (d):
Firstly, calculate ϕ from B calculate above
Fleming’s Right Hand Rule:
ϕ = BA

ϕ = 70 × 10 −3 × (2.8 × 10 −2 ) × (4.5 × 10 −2 )

ϕ = 8.82 × 10 −5 Wb
Using Faraday’s law:

dNϕ
V =
dt
​

Substituting information given and ϕ calculated

{S08-P04} Question 6: 140 × 8.82 × 10 −5

V = = 0.0882V
A small rectangular coil ABCD contains 140 turns of wire 0.14
​

11. Alternating Currents

11.1. Sinusoidal Current

The coil is held between the poles of a large magnet so that

the coil can rotate about an axis through its centre.
When the current in the coil is 170 mA, the maximum torque
produced in the coil is 2.1 × 10–3 N m.
a) What position to the magnetic field should the coil be in for
maximum torque Period, T : the time for one complete cycle of the a.c.
b) For the coil in position shown, calculate the magnitude of Frequency, f : number of oscillations per unit time
the force on side AB 1
c) Show that the magnetic flux density (B) is 70 mT f= ​

T
d) The current in the coil is switched off and the coil is turned
through an angle of 90° in a time of 0.14 s. Calculate the Peak value, I 0 / V 0 : highest point on the graph
​ ​
 Instantaneous current/voltage, I/V : the current/voltage The e.m.f. induced proportional to rate of change of field
at a particular instant so not in phase

I = I 0 sin ωt V = V 0 sin ωt
​ ​ VP and VS have a phase difference of 90 ∘ with IS, IP and ϕ
where ω = 2πf

The root-mean-squared (r.m.s.) value, I rms /V rms is the ​

11.4. Eddy Currents
value of steady current/voltage that produces same
If a metallic conductor moves in a magnetic field, an e.m.f
power in a resistor as the alternating current/voltage
is induced which will make free e-s in the metal move,
I rms = I0 ​

V rms = V0
​

causing electric current – eddy currents

2 2
​ ​ ​ ​

The eddy currents will oppose change in flux linkage of

​ ​

the conductor by Lenz’s law and energy of motion will be

11.2. Mean Power in an a.c. Supply dissipated as heat.

For a sinusoidal alternating current, peak power is twice

the average power
11.5. Transmission of Electrical Energy
P = I V and using I rms and V rms ​ ​
Electricity transmission lines have resistance, therefore,
energy will be lost through heating in the wires
I0 V0 1
P = × = IV
​ ​

2 2 2
​

​
​

Electricity transmitted at high voltage a.c. supply:

{S10-P42} Question 7: High voltage: for same power, current is smaller so less
An alternating voltage is represented by the equation heating and voltage loss in cables/wires
a.c. supply: can change output voltage efficiently using
V = 220 sin (120πt) transformers

For this alternating voltage, determine

11.6. Half-Wave Rectification
1. peak voltage
2. the r.m.s voltage For one-half of the time, the voltage is 0; this means that
3. the frequency the power available from a half-wave rectified supply is
reduced.
Solution:
Part (a):
Simply using the equation, V = 220 V
Part (b):
V rms = V02 = 2202 = 156 V
​
​

​ ​
​

Part (c):
The quantity in sin ( ) is equal to ωt ∴

ω = 120π

Also, ω = 2πf so
120π
f= 2π ​ = 60 Hz

11.3. Phase Difference in VP/Vs and

IP/IS/ϕ 11.7. Full-Wave Rectification
The four diodes are known as a bridge diode
The alternating current in the primary coil is not in phase with When current flowing for first half of period
the alternating e.m.f induced in the secondary coil:

Current in primary coil gives rise to magnetic field

The magnetic field in the core is in phase with current in
the primary coil
The magnetic flux cuts the secondary coil inducing e.m.f.
in the secondary coil
 Value should be much greater than the time period of a.c.
supply so capacitor does not have sufficient time to
discharge significantly
In general, the greater the value R × C , the smoother
the rectified a.c.

12. Quantum Physics

When current flowing for second half of period 12.1. Wave and Particle Model
Particle model: objects that are hard, have mass and
move about according to laws of Newtonian mechanics
Wave model: shaped like a sine graph, do not have mass
or charge. Their defining characteristics are diffraction
and interference

12.2. Photoelectric Effect

Photoelectric effect: when an electromagnetic radiation of
sufficiently high frequency falls on a metal surface,
electrons are emitted
Delocalized electrons in metal are removed by supplying
a small amount of energy provided by the incident
electromagnetic radiation
Emitted electrons are called photoelectrons
Photoelectric current: current due to photoelectrons
11.8. Smoothing
In order to produce steady d.c. from ‘bumpy’ d.c. that 12.3. Demonstrating Photoelectric
results from rectification requires a smoothing capacitor Effect
The capacitor charges and maintains the voltage as a.c.
voltage rises, (first half of the wave).
As the wave slopes downward, the capacitor begins to
discharge in order to maintain the voltage

+vley charged: when zinc plate exposed to u.v., the leaf

remains open because though electrons are emitted, they
are attracted back due to +ve charge on zinc plate
-vely charged: when zinc plate exposed to u.v., the leaf
A small capacitor discharges more rapidly than a large slowly collapses as electrons are emitted hence -ve
capacitor and gives rise to a greater ripple in output charge on electroscope decreases
If the load resistor is small, the capacitor will also
discharge rapidly Laws of Photoelectric Emission:
CR is the time constant of a capacitor resistor: time
1 1st Law: number of photoelectrons emitted per second is
taken for charge to fall e times original value
directly proportional to intensity of incident radiation
​
 2nd Law: max kinetic energy of photoelectrons is directly Matter wave: a moving particle of matter of momentum p
proportional to the frequency of the incident radiation but will have an associated wave of wavelength λ where
independent of its intensity
h h
3rd Law: for every metal, there is a minimum frequency of λ= =
mv
​ ​

p
incident radiation below which photoelectric emission
does not take place; threshold frequency where h is Plank’s constant, m is the mass and v is the
Threshold frequency: minimum frequency required to velocity of the particle. λ is the de Brogile wavelength
release electrons from the surface of a metal Diffraction of Electrons:

12.4. Particulate Nature of

Electromagnetic Radiation
Energy of an electromagnetic wave doesn’t flow
continuously but in discrete quanta
Photon: each quantum (particle) of electromagnetic
radiation
Energy of a photon of an electromagnetic radiation of
frequency f is given by When a beam of electrons strikes a thin carbon foil, a
diffraction pattern is obtained on a screen
E = hf When velocity of electrons in beam was increased by
increasing voltage, the rings in the pattern became
where h is the Planck’s constant = 6.63 × 10 −34 Js
narrower showing wavelength decreases as velocity is
Work function ( Φ): minimum amount of energy required increased, agreeing with de Brogile’s equation
by an electron to escape its surface
For a given frequency, electrons are emitted with a range 12.8. Energy Levels
of k.e. because electrons deeper inside the metal lose
energy in collision with atoms as they are emitted The energy of an atom is the total energy of its electrons
Under normal conditions, an atom is in its ground state
where it possess the minimum possible energy
12.5. Einstein’s Photoelectric Equation
When the atom absorbs energy, the energy of the atom
increases and the atom is in an excited state
hf = ϕ0 + Emax
The excited state is unstable so atoms eventually emit
​ ​

where ϕ0 is the work function of the metal absorbed energy bringing the atom back to ground state
Transition: shifting of electrons between energy levels
Thus, the energy of the absorbed photon is partly used to Electrons release energy in the form of e-m radiation
release the electron from the metal and partly to give it a The frequency of the emitted radiation is given by:
kinetic energy
hf = E2 − E1
1
​ ​

2
hf = hf 0 + mvmax
2 where f is the frequency, E2 is the energy of the higher level
​ ​ ​

and E1 is the energy of the lower level

where f0 is the threshold frequency
​

The frequencies of e-m radiation emitted by electrons

12.6. Wave-Particle Duality when they come down to ground state were found to be
discrete showing electrons can only absorb certain
Wave behavior: electromagnetic radiation shows discrete values ∴ energy of an atom is quantized
properties of diffraction and interference
Particle behavior: photoelectric effect 12.9. Line Spectra
Thus, electromagnetic radiation have a dual nature and
their particles are photons

12.7. Electron Diffraction

de Brogile suggested since waves can behave like
particles, particles should be able to behave like waves
 Assuming the unknown particle to possess x nucleons,
235+1=95+139+ 21+x
x=0
The only particle in the table to contain 0 nucleons is the
electron (-10e).
92235U +01n→ 4295Mo+57139La+ 201n+-10e+energy [1]

13.2. Mass-Energy Equivalence

Einstein’s mass-energy relation:
Emission line spectra: the composition of light emitted by
a hot gas E = mc 2
The frequencies emitted by atoms of a substance
when they de-excite from higher to lower energy where c is the velocity if light in free space
levels “mass of a system increases when energy is supplied to it”
Absorption line spectra: when white light is passed though
a cool gas Mass defect ( ΔM): the difference between the total
The frequencies absorbed from a continuous mass of the individual, separate nucleons and the mass of
spectrum by the electrons a substance the nucleus
The emission and absorption spectra are characteristic of Binding energy ( ΔE): the minimum external energy
each element required to separate all the neutrons and protons of a
nucleus. It is also the energy released when the nucleus is
assembled from its constituent nucleons
13. Particle and Nuclear The binding energy of a nucleus is a measure of how
tightly the nucleus is bound and hence how stable it is
Physics Binding energy per nucleon of a nucleus is the ratio of the
total binding energy to its nucleon number
The higher the binding energy per nucleon, the most
13.1. Balanced Equations stable the atom is

α decay: - 4 α 2
nucleon no. decreases by 4 13.3. Atomic Mass Unit
proton no. decreases by 2
1
1u is defined as 12 of the mass of a neutral atom of
​

decay: - 0 β -1 carbon-12 – approx. equal to 1.661 × 10-27 kg

proton no. increases by 1
decay: - 0 β +1 mass excess = mass (in u) – nucleon number
proton no. decreases by 1
decay: - 0 γ 0
13.4. Nuclear Fission & Fusion
proton and nucleon no. unchanged

{S17-P42} Question 12:

One nuclear reaction that can take place in a nuclear reactor
may be represented, in part, by the equation
92235U +01n→ 4295Mo+57139La+ 201n+ .…… +energy
Data for a nucleus and some particles are given in Fig. 12.1.
nucleus or particle mass/ u
57139La 138.955
01n 1.00863
59139p 1.00728
-10e 5.49 × 10-4

1. Complete the nuclear reaction shown above. [1] Fission: process in which a massive nucleus splits to form
two smaller fragments
Solution: The large nucleus has a lower binding energy per
Part (a): nucleon so splits into fission fragments which have
According to the law of conservation of mass, higher binding energy per nucleon ∴ more stable
The sum of the number of nucleons always remains the same
on both sides of the equation.
 Fusion: process by which two very light nuclei join
together to form a heavier nucleus
Two light nuclei fuse so the final binding energy per
nucleon will be greater than the original value
In general, if energy is released in a nuclear reaction, then
it shows that the binding energy of the product nuclei is
greater than that of the reactants

13.5. Spontaneous & Random Nature

Radioactive process are random and spontaneous

Random: impossible to predict and each nucleus has the

same probability of decaying per unit time
Spontaneous: not affected by external factors such as the
presence of other nuclei, temperature and pressure
Evidence on a graph: The activity of a radioactive substance represents an
Random; graph will have fluctuations in count rate exponential decay
Spontaneous; graph has same shape even at different
The half life (t 1 ) of a radioactive is the mean time taken
temperatures, pressure etc.
​

2
​

for half of the active nuclei in a sample to decay

Assuming the initial activity is 1, at half life the activity
13.6. Radioactive Decay would be ½ so:

The rate of decay of a given nuclide at any time is ∝ to 1

= (1)e−λt
2 ​

the number ( N ) of nuclei present at that time

Take ln on both sides of the equation
dN
dt ​ = −λN
ln 12 = −λt 12
​ ​

The activity ( A) of a radioactive sample is the rate at

​

which nuclei decay or disintegrate Calculate and rearrange:

The decay constant ( λ ) is the probability that an individual
0.693
nucleus will decay per unit time interval λ= t1 ​
​

2
​

A = λN Thus, decay constant is inversely prop. to its half life

The above relationship can also be written as:

x = x 0 e−λt
​
17. Astronomy and
where x could represent activity, number of undecayed
Cosmology
nuclei or received count
17.1. Standard Candles
13.7. Exponential Nature
The luminosity of a Star: total radiant energy emitted per
unit (total radiant power)
Unit: W or Js2
Standard candle: an astronomical object of known
luminosity
Scientists can determine the distance of the star from
Earth by measuring the intensity of electromagnetic
radiation observed on Earth.

Example:
Cepheid variable stars: the period of changing brightness is
related to its average luminosity. So by measuring the period,
the luminosity of Cepheid variable stars can be determined.
So Cepheid variable stars are considered to be a Standard
candle.
Type 1A Supernovae: always implode rapidly and scatter Wien’s displacement law
matter and energy out into space. The luminosity of the star The higher the temperature of the body:
at the time of implosion is always the same. So it can be the shorter the wavelength
considered a Standard candle. the greater the intensity of the electromagnetic
radiation at each wavelength
Light year (ly): distance traveled by light in a vacuum in a
year
λ max T = constant
​

Radiant flux density: radiant power passing The experimental value of the constant is 2.9 × 10 −3 mK
normally through a surface per unit area. If we rearrange the equation we will deduce
1
Assumptions of radiant flux density: λ max ∝
​

T ​

the power of a star is uniformly distributed in space However, the luminosity of the star not only depends on its
there is negligible absorption of power in space surface thermodynamic temperature T, but also depends on
its radius r.
Inverse square law

L Stefan-Boltzmann law
F =
4πd 2
​

L = 4πσr 2 T 4
L: the luminosity of the star Which the experimental value of σ is 5.67 ×
d: distance from the star center 10 −8 Wm −2 K −4
Unit of Radiant Flux Density: Wm− 2
How to determine the star radii:

17.2. Hubble’s law and the Big Bang 1. First, we use Wien’s displacement law to determine
the surface thermodynamic temperature T.
theory 2. Then, we can use Radiant flux density to determine the
luminosity of the star.
Big bang theory: Around 13.7 billion years ago, everything
3. Finally, we substitute T and L into Stefan-Boltzmann
in the entire universe was condensed in an infinitesimally
law to calculate the radii.
small singularity, a point of infinite denseness and heat.
Red Shift: the observed wavelength of all spectral lines
from distant galaxies are longer than the ones observed
in lab.
18. Medical Imaging
18.1. X-Ray Production
Hubble’s Law
X-rays are a form of electromagnetic radiation
V ∝d
Produced when high-speed electrons hit metal targets
The recession speed V of a galaxy is directly proportional to
its distance d.
V = H0 d ​

H0 : Hubble Constant. The experimental value is 2.4 ×

10 −18 s−1

Doppler redshift: for those galaxies moving speed lower

than light

Δλ Δf v
λ ​ = f ​ = c ​

where λ is the wavelength of the electromagnetic waves from

the source, Δλ is the change in the wavelength, f is the
frequency of the electromagnetic waves from the source, Δf
is the change in frequency, v is the recession speed of the
source and c is the speed of light in vacuum. Production of X-rays:
Heated filament undergoes thermionic emission
releasing high-speed electrons
17.3. Stellar Radii
p.d between cathode & anode causes e-s to accelerate
Black Body: an idealized object that absorbs all incident Electrons bombard metal target emitting X-rays which
electromagnetic radiation (e.g. star) leave through the window
Some kinetic energy of electrons transferred into the
metal target as thermal energy
 Metal target is cooled by water or spun around to
18.4. X-Ray Quality
increase target area
Tube Current: the rate of arrival of electrons at a metal Sharpness is the ease with which the edge of a structure
target
can be determined
Improving sharpness of X-Ray:
Intensity Hardness
Reduce the area of target anode
Depends on no. of e-s
hitting Depends on the acceleration
anode per unit time of electrons
Proportional to the heater Proportional to p.d. between
current anode & cathode
A more intense X-ray A harder X-ray has more
produces an image quicker penetrating power

Some ‘soft’ X-rays are always produced which cannot fully Reduce aperture size (window): reduces beam width
pass through the patient and contribute to the total Place lead grid in front of photographic film: absorbs
radiation dose of the patient. scattered X-rays and reduces partial image
To reduce the radiation dose hence cut off ‘soft’ X-rays, an
aluminium filter used to absorb them Contrast is the visual difference between the areas of
blackening and light
Improving contrast of X-Ray:
18.2. X-Ray Spectrum
Increase Exposure time
X-rays emerge from the tube with a range of energies as Use harder X-Rays: increases penetration power
represented in the spectra below Reduce scattering of X-Ray beam
Use fluorescent ‘contrast medium’

18.5. X-Ray Intensity

In medium where X-Rays are absorbed, intensity of a
parallel X-Ray beam decreases by a constant fraction in
passing through equal small thicknesses of the medium.
This gives rise to an exponential decrease in the intensity
of the transmitted beam:

I = I 0 e−μx
​

I is the instantaneous intensity of the X-ray beam

I 0 is the initial intensity of the X-Ray beam
​

x is the thickness of the medium passed by X-Ray

The spectra is made up of two components: μ is the linear absorption coefficient unique to medium,
Braking radiation: X-ray photons released when e- dependent on photon energy and in mm-1
decelerate as it strikes anode, attracted by the
nucleus of an atom in the anode and loses energy This can be represented graphically:
Characteristic radiation: rearrangement of e-s in
anode when a high-speed e- strikes, excites orbital e-s
which then de-excite, emitting photons & giving rise to
spectrum lines; specific to material of anode

18.3. X-Ray Imaging

X-ray radiation blackens photographic plates in the same
way as visible light
Degree of blackening depends on total X-ray exposure
Mostly used to distinguish bones from tissue because
bones have a higher density than surrounding tissue
Half-value Thickness ( x1/2 ): thickness of the medium
Can be used to identify organs if the densities of
​

required to reduce the transmitted intensity to one half of

surrounding tissues are sufficiently different its initial value
 Related to the linear absorption coefficient by:

x 1/2 × μ = ln 2
​

18.6. Computed Tomography (CAT/CT

Scan)
X-Ray imaging only produces a 2 dimensional image with
no impression of depth, cannot tell if tissue is near to the
surface or deep within the body
Tomography is a procedure which forms a 3 dimensional
plane of the object
The diagram below shows the procedure

For a well-defined image in a CT scan, we need voxels to

be small and to do so:
X-ray beams must be well collimated so that it consists
Putting together several planes produces a whole 3
of parallel ray – rays must not spread
dimensional image which can be rotated
Detector must consist of regular array of tiny
detecting elements – smaller the detector the better
18.7. Voxel Development in CT Scans the image
Advantages of a CT scan:
Voxel: a small cube in a three-dimensional image Produce images that show three-dimensional
The number in each square is the density that the relationships between different tissues
computer will register for that section of the object Can distinguish tissues with quite similar densities
As the scanner goes around each part has a different
density which the computer can model
The computer then put these together to form a 3
18.9. Ultrasonic Waves
dimensional shape
Ultrasound is any sound wave that has a frequency above
the upper limit of human hearing, 20kHz
18.8. Building the Image Piezo-electric transducers can be used to record and
produce ultrasonic waves
A diagram of a Piezo-electric transducer:
 From the law of conservation of energy:

Quartz crystal is the macromolecule formed by SiO2 I = IR + IT​ ​

Generating Ultrasonic Waves: Specific Acoustic Impedance ( Z ): product of density of

medium and speed of sound in medium
Charged atoms of a transducer in an electric field move
closer to oppositely charged plates and the overall crystal Z = ρc
either compresses or extends:
Between two media, the difference in acoustic impedance
determines the fraction of incident intensity that is
reflected
Intensity Reflection Coefficient ( α ): ratio of intensity of
reflected wave and intensity of incident wave

IR ( Z2 − Z1 ) 2
α= =
​ ​ ​

( Z2 + Z1 ) 2
​ ​

I ​ ​

Comparing acoustic impedances ( IIR ) : ​

When an alternating voltage with frequency f is applied to Very large fraction reflected at air-tissue boundary
the crystal, it causes it to contract and expand at the same Large fraction reflected at tissue-bone boundary
frequency of f Very little reflected at boundary between soft tissues
A gel is applied before carrying out scan because when
This acts as the vibrating source of ultrasound waves wave travels in or out of the body, there is:
Very little transmission at an air-skin boundary
Receiving Ultrasonic Waves:
Almost complete transmission at a gel-skin boundary
because acoustic impedance of gel & skin very similar
Ultrasonic waves change pressure in medium
Charged atoms in crystal shift position closer to plates
Opposite charges induced in the silver plates 18.11. Attenuation of Ultrasonic Waves
Induced potential difference across the plates
Potential difference fluctuates which can be processed Similar to X-Rays ultrasonic waves are also absorbed by
the medium in which they are passing through
18.10. Reflection of Ultrasonic Waves Also follows the same decay equation as X-Rays:

I = I 0 e−kx
Ultrasound requires ultrasonic waves to pass from one
​

medium to another Note the constant is different

When a beam of ultrasound wave reaches a boundary k is called the absorption coefficient
between two different media, the beam is partially
refracted and partially reflected
18.12. Ultrasound Imaging Procedure
Transducer is placed in contact with skin and a gel acting
as a coupling medium
Pulses of ultrasound are directed into the body
The wave is reflected at boundary between tissues
 The reflected pulse is detected and processed Advantages Disadvantages
The time for return of echo gives information on depth
can be used to detect cancer
Amount of reflection gives information on structures
Two techniques for display:
A-scan: measures distance of different boundaries 18.14. Positron Emission Tomography
from transducer held in one position graphically
B-scan: repeats A-scan from multiple angles to form 2 Uses: diagnosing cancers, heart diseases, gastrointestinal
dimensional image disorders and brain function

Radiotracer

Radiotracer: made by fluorodeoxyglucose, glucose base

molecule with attachment of fluorine-18. Radiotracer will
emit beta+ particle (positron).
Radiotracer is injected into vein, travels through the body
and is absorbed by organs.
Cancer cells are more active, so they absorb glucose and
decay more rapidly.

Annihilation

1. Isotope fluorodeoxyglucose decays by emitting beta+

(positron, antiparticle of electron)
2. Positron moves a short distance and pair with an
electron
3. The pair will annihilate and their mass becomes pure
18.13. Comparing Medical Imaging
energy
Methods 4. Two gamma rays emitted in opposite direction
5. Gamma rays will be detected
X-Ray:
Noted that in this process, both the energy and momentum
Advantages Disadvantages are conserved.
Equipment heavy and not
Sharp image
portable
May cause ionization and
Improvable contrast
damage tissues
Production of suitable radioisotopes
Can form image where air is
trapped (lung) Scientists use cyclotron:

Ultrasound: 1. Particles are continuously accelerated by alternating

electric field
Advantages Disadvantages 2. Travel in a spiral path and hit target nuclei
Cannot be used to form
Portable equipment image where air is trapped
e.g. lungs
Noted that Fl-18 has
Image not sharp due to half-life of 2 hours so no danger for patient.
Less harmful than X-ray
refraction
Rapid movements in tissue – Detecting the gamma rays
Can break kidney stones
may damage
Used for treatment of Like CT, series slices of image are taken by ring shape
sprained joints detectors.
Principal of detector:
CT/CAT: 1. A crystal receives gamma-photon
2. An electron is excited according to photoelectric effect
Advantages Disadvantages
3. One electron will excite more electrons
show metabolic activity of Equipment heavy and not 4. As electrons back to ground state, they emit visible
cells portable light photon
5. Photomultiplier converts photon into electrical signal Computer can build up the image by by processing the arrival
which can be read by computer. times of the gamma-ray photons.
CAIE A2 LEVEL
29. Remote Sensing

Physics
(a) Candidates should be able to explain in simple terms the need for remote sensing (non-invasive
techniques of diagnosis) in medicine.
Historically, diagnosis consisted of two techniques – observing the patient outwardly for signs of fever,
vomiting, changed breathing rate etc, and observing the patient inwardly by surgery. The first technique
depended greatly on experience but was still blind to detailed internal conditions. The second quite
often led to trauma and sometimes death of the patient. In earlier times there was also the significant
risk of post-operative infection.
Modern diagnostic techniques have concentrated on using externally placed devices to obtain
information from underneath the skin. X-rays have been used for a century. More recently, ultrasound
has been used, especially in cases of pregnancy. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is now becoming
a frequently-used technique. Other techniques involve lasers that can shine through a finger or can be
used in a very narrow tube that can be inserted into the body through various orifices.
In all these situations, the aim is to obtain detailed information concerning internal structures. This may
be concerned, for example, with the functioning of an organ or the search for abnormalities. This is
achieved without the need of investigative surgery and is described as a non-invasive technique. Non-
invasive techniques are designed to present a much smaller risk than surgery and are, in general, far
less traumatic for the patient.

(b) Candidates should be able to explain the principles of the production of X-rays by electron
bombardment of a metal target.
X-rays are produced by bombarding metal targets with high-speed electrons. A typical spectrum of the
X-rays produced is shown in Fig. 2.1.

intensity

0
wavelength
Fig. 2.1
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13
© University of Cambridge International Examinations 2009
As well as the continuous distribution of wavelengths, sharp peaks are observed. These peaks
correspond to the emission line spectrum of the atoms of the target. The electrons that bombard the
target excite orbital electrons in the lower energy levels and the subsequent de-excitation of electrons
gives rise to the line spectrum.

(c) Candidates should be able to describe the main features of a modern X-ray tube, including control
of the intensity and hardness of the X-ray beam.
A simplified diagram of a modern form of X-ray tube is shown in Fig. 2.2.
– +

cooled
metal
anode

heated filament
(cathode)

evacuated
chamber
X-ray window
Fig. 2.2
Electrons are emitted from the heated cathode (thermionic effect). The electrons are accelerated
through a large potential difference (20 kV → 100 kV for diagnosis) before bombarding a metal anode.
The X-rays produced leave the tube via a ‘window’. Since the majority of the energy of the electrons is
transferred to thermal energy in the metal anode, the anode is either water-cooled or is made to spin
rapidly so that the target area is increased. The anode is held at earth potential.
The intensity of the X-ray beam is determined by the rate of arrival of electrons at the metal target, that
is, the tube current. This tube current is controlled by the heater current of the cathode. The greater the
heater current, the hotter the filament and hence the greater the rate of emission of thermo-electrons.
The hardness of the X-ray beam (the penetration of the X-rays) is controlled by the accelerating voltage
between the cathode and the anode. More penetrating X-rays have higher photon energies and thus a
larger accelerating potential is required. Referring to Fig. 2.1, it can be seen that longer wavelength X-
rays (‘softer’ X-rays) are always also produced. Indeed some X-ray photons are of such low energy that
they would not be able to pass through the patient. These ‘soft’ X-rays would contribute to the total
radiation dose without any useful purpose. Consequently, an aluminium filter is frequently fitted across
the window of the X-ray tube to absorb the ‘soft’ X-ray photons.

(d) Candidates should be able to show an understanding of the use of X-rays in imaging internal body
structures, including a simple analysis of the causes of sharpness and contrast in X-ray imaging.
X-ray radiation affects photographic plates in much the same way as visible light. A photographic plate,
once exposed, will appear blackened after development. The degree of blackening is dependent on
the total X-ray exposure.
X-ray photons also cause fluorescence in certain materials. The mechanism is similar to that by which
visible light is produced on the screen of a cathode-ray oscilloscope.
X-ray beams are used to obtain ‘shadow’ pictures of the inside of the body to assist in the diagnosis or
treatment of illness. If a picture is required of bones, this is relatively simple since the absorption by
bone of X-ray photons is considerably greater than the absorption by surrounding muscles and tissues.
X-ray pictures of other parts of the body may be obtained if there is sufficient difference between the
absorption properties of the organ under review and the surrounding tissues.
 The quality of the shadow picture (the image) produced on the photographic plate depends on its
sharpness and contrast. Sharpness is concerned with the ease with which the edges of structures can
be determined. A sharp image implies that the edges of organs are clearly defined. An image may be
sharp but, unless there is a marked difference in the degree of blackening of the image between one
organ and another (or between different parts of the same organ), the information that can be gained is
limited. An X-ray plate with a wide range of exposures, having areas showing little or no blackening as
well as areas of heavy blackening, is said to have good contrast.
In order to achieve as sharp an image as possible, the X-ray tube is designed to generate a beam of X-
rays with minimum width. Factors in the design of the X-ray apparatus that may affect sharpness include
• the area of the target anode, as illustrated in Fig. 2.3,

partial
partial
anode object shadow anode object
shadow

full full
shadow shadow

partial
partial shadow
shadow
electrons electrons

Fig. 2.3
• the size of the aperture, produced by overlapping metal plates, through which the X-ray beam
passes after leaving the tube (see Fig. 2.4),

Fig. 2.4
• the use of a lead grid in front of the photographic film to absorb scattered X-ray photons, as
illustrated in Fig. 2.5.
patient
film

X-ray
beam

Fig. 2.5
In order to improve contrast, a ‘contrast medium’ may be used. For example, the stomach may be
examined by giving the patient a drink containing barium sulphate. Similarly, to outline blood vessels, a
contrast medium that absorbs strongly the X-radiation would be injected into the bloodstream.
The contrast of the image produced on the photographic film is affected by exposure time, X-ray
penetration and scattering of the X-ray beam within the patient’s body. Contrast may be improved by
backing the photographic film with a fluorescent material.
15
© University of Cambridge International Examinations 2009
(e) Candidates should be able to show an understanding of the purpose of computed tomography or
CT scanning.
The image produced on an X-ray plate as outlined in the section on 29(d) is a ‘flat image’ and does not
give any impression of depth. That is, whether an organ is near to the skin or deep within the body is
not apparent. Tomography is a technique by which an image of a slice, or plane, of the object may be
obtained.
In this technique, a series of X-ray images are obtained from different angles through one section, or
slice, of the object to be examined. The images are all in the plane of the slice, as illustrated in Fig. 2.7.

X-ray tube

object collimator

X-ray detectors

Fig. 2.7
Computer techniques make it possible to combine these images to give an image of the slice. The
technique is called computed (axial) tomography or CT scanning.
Images of successive slices can be combined to give a three-dimensional image. The three-dimensional
image can be rotated and viewed from any angle.

(f) Candidates should be able to show an understanding of the principles of CT scanning.

(g) Candidates should be able to show an understanding of how the image of an 8-voxel cube can be