Special Theory of Relativity

In 1905, Albert Einstein created the theory of relativity. He

proposed special theory of relativity that revolutionized the old
concepts of the Newtonian Mechanics or classical mechanics.
This theory is of two types; special theory of relativity and
general theory of relativity.
The special theory of relativity deals with objects and systems,
which are either moving at a constant speed with respect to one
another or either are at rest and discarded the absolute motion
through space.
The general theory deals with the objects and systems which are
speeding up or slowing down [Link] another.
The beauty of the special theory of relativity lies in the fact that,
it correctly predicts the motion of the bodies not only at low
velocities (vc) but also for the velocities comparable to the
velocity of light (vc). Newtonian mechanics is infect a special
case of Einstein generalized theory
 Frame of Reference
Length is relative…..i.e., the E F
same line CD at the same time C D
is shorter relative to EF and A B
longer to AB
Position is relative…..i.e., boat A
is at left relative to A and at Boat
the same time is right relative
to B B

In the same way motion is

relative…..i.e., B at the same A Stationary
time will feel that A is B moving with 10 km/hr
stationary and C is moving C moving with 40 km/hr
with 40 km/hr
 Frame of Reference
So it is obvious that, the motion of a body has no meaning
unless it is described with respect to some well defined
coordinate system, known as frame of reference, with respect to
which the velocity of a body is measured.

So “a frame of reference is a coordinate system relative to which

the position and motion of a body may be described”.

All motion is relative and in each case a frame of reference is

part of the description of the motion. Further, a frame of
reference must be chosen in such a way that the laws of nature
may become fundamentally simpler when expressed in such
frames of references.
There is no universal frame of reference that can be used
everywhere.
 Frame of Reference
There are two types of frame of references;
Inertial Frame of Reference and Non-inertial Frame of Reference

Inertia is the resistance of any physical object to any change in its

motion (including a change in direction).
In other words, it is the tendency of objects to keep moving in a
straight line at constant linear velocity, or to keep still.

Inertial Frame of Reference

The systems in which the Newton’s First law of motion holds
good are called inertial frame of reference.

The frame relative to which a body, not acted upon by any

external force, remains un-accelerated, are called inertial
frames.
Any frame of reference that moves with a constant velocity relative
to an inertial frame is itself an inertial frame of reference. Inertial
frames are necessarily the un-accelerated frames.

Space shuttle or rocket moving with constant velocity w.r.t. earth.

Non-Inertial Frame of Reference

The systems in which the Newton’s First law of motion does
not holds good are called non-inertial frame of reference.

The frame relative to which a body, not acted upon by any

external force, is accelerated, are called inertial frames.
A frame of reference which is in accelerated motion with respect to
an inertial frame is called non-inertial frame of reference. All the
accelerated and rotatory frames are non-inertial.
Moving Planet around the sun, Earth (orbital & spin motion, net
acceleration of approx 3-5 cm/sec).
 Galilean Transformation
The equations relating the coordinates of a particle in two inertial
frames are called Galilean transformation.

S’ is moving along +ve X-direction; Length , time and mass

are independent of the
y y´ relative motion of the
S S´ v observer
vt x´
EVENT
x
x´ = x – vt
O x O´ x´ y´ = y
z´ = z
Z Z´
Time is absolute t´ = t
 Galilean Transformation
S’ is moving along a straight line relative to S along any direction;
v = vxi + v yj + vzk
Length , time and mass
y´ are independent of the
y relative motion of the
observer
S S´
vt x´ EVENT
x x´ = x – vxt
v O´ X´ y´ = y – v yt
O X
z´ = z – vzt
Z´
Z t´ = t
Time is absolute Or, in general; r´ = r – vt
 Galilean Transformations for velocity and accelaration
We have; r´ = r – vt & t´ = t
Differentiating above eqs ; dr´ = dr – vdt & dt´ = dt

or; dr´/dt´ = dr/dt -v

or; u´ = u - v

This is Galelian transformations for velocity shows that

velocity is not invariant under G. T.

Again differentiating; du´/dt´ = du/dt or, a´ = a

These are the acceleration of particles in frame S and S`. So acceleration

observed in different inertial frames are same OR acceleration is
invariant under G.T.
 The Need for Ether
The wave nature of light seemed to require a propagation
medium. It was called ether.

Ether had to have such a low density that the planets

could move through it without loss of energy.

It had to have an elasticity to support the high velocity

of light waves.

And somehow, it could not support longitudinal waves.

And (it goes without saying…) light waves in the ether

obeyed the Galilean transformation for moving frames.
 Postulates of Special Theory of Relativity

1. All the fundamental laws of physics retain the same form in all
the inertial frame of reference (i.e. for all reference systems which
are either at rest or moving with constant linear velocity relative
to one another.)

2. The velocity of light in free space is constant and is independent

of the relative motion of the source and the observer.

“The first postulate is the extension of the conclusion drawn from

Newtonian Mechanics, since velocity is not absolute.”

As the speed of light is not constant under G. T. and the first

postulate is the conclusion drawn from Newtonian Mechanics. So
the second postulate is not true according to G.T. Since this is true,
if the velocity of light calculated by any means is constant.
 Postulates of Special Theory of Relativity

The second postulate is very important and is responsible to

differentiate the classical theory and the special theory of
relativity.

According to Einstein the theory of relativity is applicable to the

laws of optics. So for the constancy of velocity of light we have to
introduce a new transformations which fulfil the following
requirements;

1. The speed of light c must have the same value in every

inertial frame.
2. The transformations must be liner and for low speeds
(v<<c), they should approach to Galelian Transformations.
3. They should not be based on the “absolute time” and
“absolute space”.
 Lorentz Transformation
y y´
S´ v P (x,y,z,t)
S (x´,y´,z´,t´)

x x´
O
O´

Z Z´

Let a pulse of light be generated at t = 0 from the origin and

spreads out in space and at the same time frame S’ starts moving
with constant velocity v along +ve x direction relative to frame S.
The transformation equations of x and x’ can be written as
x'   ( x  vt ) (i)

where γ is a constant of proportionality and is independent of x

and t.
The inverse relation can be written as x   ( x ' vt ' ) (ii)

Here t  t ' . Putting value of x’ from (i) in (ii)

x
x   [ ( x  vt )  vt ' ]  x  vt  vt '

x x x 1 
t '    t t '  t  1  2 
v v or
v  
 x 1 
t '   t  1  2  (iii)
 v   
According to second postulate of special theory of relativity
speed of light c remains constant, so velocity of light which
spreads out should be same in both frames

x  ct and x'  ct ' (iv)

Putting values of x and x’ from (iv) in (i)
ct '   ( x  vt )   (ct  vt )
ct '  t (c  v) (v)
Similarly using (iv) in (ii), we get

ct  t ' (c  v) (vi)
Multiplying (v) and (vi)

c tt '   tt ' (c  v )
2 2 2 2
 2
c
  2
2
(vii)
(c  v )
2

1
  (viii)
1 v c 2 2

Using (viii) in (i), we get

( x  vt )
x' 
1 v c2 2

Using (vii) in (iii), we get

x  c2  v2 
t '  t  1  2

v c 
 x  v 2   xv 
t '  t   2  or t'    t  2 
v c   xv   c 
t  2 
 c 
or t' 
1 v c
2 2

Lorentz transformation equations are;

( x  vt )
x'  y' y z' z
1 v c 2 2

 xv 
t  2 
 c 
and t' 
1 v c
2 2
If the frame S is moving with velocity v along the –ve direction of
X-axis relative to frame S’, then the transformation equations

( x  vt )
' '

x y y ' z  z '
1 v c 2 2

 x' v 
 t ' 2 
 c 
and t
1 v c2 2

These equations are known as inverse Lorentz transformation

equations.
If speed of moving frame is much smaller than the velocity of
light then the Lorentz transformation reduces to Galilean
transformation equations.
 Length Contraction
y S y´ S´
v
x’2
x’1 A B
O x O´
´
x1 x´
x2
Z Z´
Let Lo be the length of the rod in Frame S’ measured by O’ at any
instant. This length Lo is called the proper length.

Lo  x  x
'
2
'
1
Let L be the length of the rod measured by an observer O in
stationary frame S.

L  x 2  x1
As per Lorentz transformation;

x1  vt x2  vt
x 
'
1 (i) &
x 
'
2 (ii)
1 v c 2 2 1 v c
2 2

Subtracting (i) from (ii), we get; x2  x1

x x 
'
2
'
1
1 v c 2 2

L 2
Lo  v
 L  Lo 1  2  L  Lo
1 v c 2 2
c
Thus the length of the rod is reduced in the ratio 1  v 2 c 2 : 1
as measured by the observer moving with velocity v with
respect to the rod. i.e., So, the length is appeared to be
contracted by a factor of 1 v2 c2
This is called length contraction or Lorentz Fitzgerald equation.
If, (1) v<<c, then L = L0, as v2/c2 is negligible.
(2) v ≈ c then L < L0.
(3) v = c, then v2/c2 = 1, then L = 0 which is not possible.

If we consider that, the rod is placed perpendicular to the

direction of motion, then the length of the rod in frame S’ is
given by; Lo  y 2  y1
' '

And the length of rod in frame S is L  y 2  y1 so by Lorentz

transformations, L = L0, i.e., length of the rod remains
unchanged in the direct perpendicular to the direction of
motion.
 Time Dilation
y S y´ S´
v
P (x´,y´,z´)

O x O´
´
x´

Z Z´
Imagine a gun is placed at point P in the frame S’
Suppose the gun fires two shots at time intervals t’1 and t’2
measured by observer O’ in the frame S’
The time interval ( t’2 - t’1 ) of two shots measured by the clock
at rest in moving frame S’ is called proper time interval and is
given by
t 2  t1  to
' '

In the frame S, the observer O, which is at rest, observes these

shots at different times t1 and t2 The time interval is given by
t 2  t1  t

As the motion is relative, we can assume that S is moving with

velocity –v along positive x-axis relative to S’.
From inverse Lorentz transformation equations;

t  vx' / c
' 2
t1  1 (i)
1 v c2 2
 t 2'  vx' / c 2
t2  (ii)
1 v c2 2

Using (i) and (ii)

t 2  t1  t

t 2'  t1' to
t  or t
1 v c 2 2
1 v c 2 2

 t  to
Thus the time interval appears to be lengthened by a factor
1 1  v 2 c 2 which is observed by the observer O in frame
S. This is called time dilation.
 Velocities Addition
y S y´ S´
v
P (x´,y´,z´)

O x O´
´
x´

Z Z´

Let there be two coordinate systems S & S’. S’ is moving with

velocity v relative to frame S. Let u and u’ be the velocities of
the particle measured in frames S and S’ respectively.
The velocity are given as;
u  uxi  u y j  u z k
u  u xi  u y j  u z k
' ' ' '

where, ux, uy & uz are the components of u along i, j & k

directions, while u’x, u’y & u’z are the components of u’ along i,
j & k directions.
Now, from the definition of velocity, we have;

dx dy dz
ux  uy  uz 
dt dt dt
(i)
' ' '
dx dy dz
u  '
'
x u  '
'
y u  '
'
z
dt dt dt
From inverse Lorentz transformation;
 x' v 
( x' vt ' ) y  y '  t ' 2 
x  c  (ii)
1 v2 c2 z  z ' t
1 v2 c2
Differentiating equation (ii), we get;
vdx'
dt ' 2
dx'vdt' dy  dy ' dt  c (iii)
dx 
1 v c2 2 dz  dz ' 1 v c
2 2

from equation (i) & (iii), we get; dx'

dx dx'vdt ' v u v
'
ux    dt '  x
dt dt ' vdx' vdx' v '
1  2 ux
2 1 2
c c dt ' c
Similarly, we get;

dy u
'
1 v c 2 2
dz u
'
1 v c
2 2

uy  
y
and uz   z

dt v ' dt v '
1 2 ux 1  2 ux
c c

Here the expressions for u x , u y and u z represent the relativistic

laws of addition of velocities

Consequences of velocity addition theorem;

The velocity addition theorem is;

u v
'
ux  x
v '
1  2 ux
c
Case I;
If we consider that the particle is a photon and is moving with
the speed of light c in the moving frame S’ along its direction
of motion relative to S, and the frame of reference S’ is moving
with relativistic velocity v with respect to S, then;

u c
'
x
and vv
then

u v
'
cv c (c  v )
ux  x
   c  ux  c
v ' vc c  v
1  2 ux 1 2
c c
It simply means that the addition of any velocity to the speed of
light merely reproduces the speed of light.
i.e., “the velocity of light is same in all inertial frames”. Which is
the second postulate of special theory of relativity.
Hence “the velocity addition theorem is consistent with the
second postulate of special theory of relativity”.

Case II;

If we consider that the photon is moving with the speed of light c

and the frame of reference S’ is also moving with speed of light
c , then;

u x'  c and vc

then
u v
'
cc 2c
ux  x
  c  ux  c
v ' cc 2
1  2 ux 1 2
c c
It simply means that if we add velocity of light to the velocity of
light, we simply get the velocity of light.
So, we conclude that “no material particle can travel with the
velocity greater than the velocity of light.
Criticism on velocity addition theorem
Thought velocity addition theorem of S. T. R. imposes an upper
limit on velocities of particles. This upper limit is the speed of
light. But still there are some examples in which the velocity of
particles is greater than the velocity of light.
The moving material particle whose refractive index is less than
one provide one such example. When the particle is in motion
it consists two type of velocities; phase velocity and group
velocity. The phase velocity of such material particles is greater
than speed of light c, while group velocity is less than c. But in
such cases, it is the group velocity with which signal propagate,
not the phase velocity.
 Variation of mass with velocity
In classical mechanics, the mass of the particle is considered to
be a constant quantity and also independent of its velocity.

But in relativistic mechanics, like the length and time are not
constant, the mass is also not constant and depend on its
(particle) velocity.

Let there be two coordinate systems S & S’. S’ is moving with

relativistic velocity v relative to frame S in positive X-direction.

Let two same elastic balls B1 and B2 each having same mass m
approaching each other in frame S’ with equal speeds (u & -u)
and collide with each other in such a way that they coalesce into
one body .
 y S y´ S´
v
B1 B2

u -u
O x O´
´
x´

Z Z´
By applying the law of conservation of linear momentum;
Momentum (B1) + Momentum (B2) = Momentum of coalesced body

(mu )  (mu )  0
Thus after the collision coalesced body must be at rest in Frame S’.
Let u1 and u2 be the velocities of the two elastic balls B1 and B2
when observed from frame S.
According to Lorentz velocity transformation;

uv u v
u1  (i) u2  (ii)
1  uv c 2
1  uv c 2

After an in-elastic collision the coalesced body moves with the

velocity of Frame S’. So, v will be the observed velocity of
coalesced body in frame S.

Let mass of ball B1 which is moving with velocity u1 is m1 and Let

mass of ball B2 which is moving with velocity u2 is m2 in frame S.
By again applying the law of conservation of linear momentum;
m1u1  m2u2  (m1  m2 )v (iii)
Using equations (i) and (ii) in (iii)
 uv   u v 
m1    m2 
2 
  (m1  m2 )v
2 
 1  uv c   1  uv c 

 uv   u v 
m1   v   m2  v  
2 
 1  uv c  1  uv c 
2


 u (1  v c ) 
2 2
 u (1  v c ) 
2 2
m1  2 
  m2  2 

 1  uv c   1  uv c 
m1 1  uv c 2
 (iv)
m2 1  uv c 2
Now we have to find out the value of 1  uv c 2 from eq. (iv).
1  uv c 2
In order to do that, we will use eq. (i);

1
u 2
 1
1 (u  v) / c 

(1 2
u 2
c 2
)(1  v 2
c 2
) (v)
c 2
(1  uv c )2 2
(1  uv c )2 2

Similarly from equation (ii)

u22 (1  u 2 c 2 )(1  v 2 c 2 )
1 2  (vi)
c (1  uv c )2 2

Dividing equation (vi) by (v)

1 u c2
(1  uv c )
2 2 2
2

1 u c2
1
2
(1  uv c )
2 2
 1 u 2
c 2
(1  uv c 2 )
2
 (vii)
1  u 12 c 2 (1  uv c 2 )
From equation (iv) and (vii)
m1 1 u c 2 2
 2

m2 1  u1 c
2 2


m1 1  u c  m2 1  u c
2
1
2
  2
2
2
 (viii)

From (viii), it is clear that LHS and RHS are independent of each
other. This is true when each equal to a constant.

 1
2
 
m1 1  u c  m2 1  u c  mo
2 2
2
2

where mo is the rest mass of the body.
Thus;
m0 m0
m1  and m2 
1 u c2
1
2
1 u c
2
2
2

From above equations it can be concluded that if mo be the rest

mass of the body then its mass m when it moves at speed v
will appear as;
m0
m
1 v c
2 2

This is the relativistic formula for the variation of mass with

velocity.
If we substitute v = c then m becomes  (i.e. infinite mass). Thus
no material particle can have a velocity equal or greater than
the velocity of light.
 Einstein’s Mass Energy relation
Let a body of rest mass mo is moving with velocity then its mass
can be given by; m0
m (i)
1 v 2
c 2

According to Newton’s second law of motion, the rate of change

of momentum of the particle is equal to the force applied on it.

d ( mv )
F (ii)
dt
If the particle is displaced by a distance dx by the application of
force F, the work done Fdx is stored as kinetic energy (EK) in the
body.
dW  dE K  Fdx (iii)
From equation (ii) and (iii); d (mv)
dE K  dx
dt
dx  dE K  v(vdm  mdv)
dE K  d (mv)
dt
 dE K  v dm  mvdv
2 (iv)

But m0
m
1 v c
2 2

So,
m c m v  m c
2 2 2 2 2 2
o
(v)

Differentiating equation (v); ( mo and c are constants)

2mdmc  2mdmv  2vdvm  0
2 2 2
 dmc  v dm  mvdv
2 2
(vi)
Comparing equation (iv) and (vi)
dE K  dmc 2 (vii)

From equation (vii), we find that change in kinetic energy is

directly proportional to the change in mass.
If the body is at rest, its velocity will be zero and hence the
change in kinetic energy will be zero i.e. mass will be mo.
If the body moves with velocity v, then its mass becomes m and
its K.E. becomes EK.
Integrating equation (vii);
EK m

 dE c  dm
2
K
0 m0
 E K  c 2 [m  m0 ]  mc 2  m0 c 2
mc  E K  m0 c
2 2
(viii)

From equation (viii), we find that mc2 is the total energy. It is the
sum of kinetic and rest mass energy.
E  mc 2

This relation is called Einstein’s mass energy relation.

 Energy Momentum relation
Let a particle of rest mass mo is moving with velocity, v then the
energy associated with it is given by;
m0 c 2
E  mc  2

1 v 2
c 2

Momentum of the particle is; p  mv or v p m

2 2
m0 c m0 c
E or E
1 ( p m c )
2 2 2
1 ( p c m c )
2 2 2 4

2
m0 c
E
1 ( p c E )
2 2 2
 2 4
m0 c
E 
2
or E [1  ( p c E )]  m0 c
2 2 2 2 2 4

1 ( p c E )
2 2 2

2 4
E  p c  m0 c
2 2 2 2 4
or E  m0 c  p 2 c 2
2

2 4
E  m0 c  p c 2 2

Kinetic Energy is given by; E K  E  m0 c 2

2 4
E K  m0 c  p c  m0 c 2 2 2
  p 2

1/ 2

E K  m0 c  1  2 2
2

  1 (i)
 m0 c  
 
But 1/ 2
 p  2
1 p 2
1  2   1 (v  c )
 m c2  2 2
2 m0 c
 0 
Equation (i) now becomes;
 1 p 2
 p 2
E K  m0 c 1 
2
2 2
 1 
 2 m0 c  2m0
2
p
When (v<<c) then we have m = m0 ; EK 
2m
Thus in limit of small velocities, the relativistic relation between
kinetic energy and momentum tends to the classical relation