RELATIVITY

Mechanics of bodies moving at speed comparable to

the speed of light

If 𝒗 ≪ 𝒄 Classical Mechanics/Newtonian
Mechanics

If 𝒗 → 𝒄 Relativistic Mechanics

In the theory of relativity, laws of Newtonian

mechanics are found incomplete. But Results and
laws of Relativistic Mechanics lead to laws of
Newtonian Mechanics in the limit 𝒗 ≪ 𝒄, whereas
converse is not true
Relativity in Newtonian Mechanics
Galilean Transformations
Equations which relate the measurements of
stationary frame of reference with the moving frame
moving with v << c

S SꞋ
𝒙′ = 𝒙 − 𝒗𝒕
𝒚′ = 𝒚 𝒗𝒕 v << c
𝒛′ = 𝒛 P(x, y, z, t)
𝒕′ = 𝒕 𝒙′ 𝑷(𝒙′ , 𝒚′ , 𝒛′ , 𝒕′ )
𝒙
Inverse Galilean Transformations

𝒙 = 𝒙′ +𝒗𝒕′
𝒚 = 𝒚′
𝒛 = 𝒛′
𝒕 = 𝒕′
 Galilean Invariance
S SꞋ
Length as per stationary frame
𝑳 = 𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙𝟏
v << c
Length as per Moving frame
𝑳′ = 𝒙′𝟐 − 𝒙′𝟏
(𝒙𝟏 , 𝟎, 𝟎) (𝒙𝟐 , 𝟎, 𝟎)
= (𝒙𝟐 −𝒗𝒕) − (𝒙𝟏 −𝒗𝒕) u
= 𝒙𝟐 −𝒙𝟏
𝑳′ = L (𝒙′𝟏 , 𝟎, 𝟎) (𝒙′𝟐 , 𝟎, 𝟎)

If bar moves with speed u parallel to its length and P is any point on
bar with coordinates measured by two frames as x and x’ such that
𝒙′ = 𝒙 − 𝒗𝒕 These results are compatible with
𝒅𝒙′ 𝒅𝒙
= − 𝒗 Newtonian Mechanics but not consistent
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕 with the theory of RELATIVITY
′
𝒖 =𝒖−𝒗
Ether/Search for an Absolute frame of Reference
The wave nature of light suggested that there existed a
propagation medium called the ether

Ether was proposed as an absolute reference in which the

speed of light was constant and from which other
measurements could be made

The Michelson-Morley experiment was an attempt to

show the existence of ether
 Michelson-Morley Experiment

Michelson and Morley performed an experiment to detect

the presence of Ether. Experimental setup was similar to
Michelson’s interferometer.
 L
v L

𝑐2 − 𝑣 2
c

Time for Arm 1

c v
Time for Arm 2
v c
 Optical Path difference between two rays
𝟐𝑳𝒄 𝟐𝑳
∆𝒙 = 𝒄(𝒕𝟏 − 𝒕𝟏 ) = 𝒄 𝟐 − 𝟐
𝒄 −𝒗 𝟐
𝒄𝟐 − 𝒗𝟐 𝒗
∆𝒙′ = −𝑳 𝟐
𝟐𝑳 𝟐𝑳 𝒄
=𝒄 𝟐
−
𝒗 𝒗 𝟐
𝒄 (𝟏 − 𝟐 ) 𝒄 𝟏− 𝟐 Change in Path difference
𝒄 𝒄
𝟐 −𝟏 𝟐 −𝟏/𝟐
𝒗𝟐
𝒗 𝒗 ∆ = 𝟐𝑳 𝟐
= 𝟐𝑳 𝟏 − 𝟐 − 𝟏− 𝟐 𝒄
𝒄 𝒄
𝒗𝟐 𝒗𝟐 If n number of fringe
≅ 𝟐𝑳 𝟏 + 𝟐 − 𝟏 + 𝟐 shifts occur then
𝒄 𝟐𝒄
𝒗𝟐 𝒗𝟐
∆𝒙 = 𝑳 𝟐 𝒏𝝀 = 𝟐𝑳 𝟐
𝒄 𝒄
For the experiment,
If setup is rotated through 90o expected result was
then new path difference is
𝒏 = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟎𝟒
Experiment was sensitive enough to detect a shift of 0.01
Experiment was carried out at different places and at
different times round the year
But no such fringe shift was ever detected
The result was termed as
NEGATIVE or NULL RESULT
Conclusions drawn from Null Results:
1. There no ether like medium permeating the entire universe
2. Speed of light in free space is constant in all the direction
of propagation and is not affected due to motion of
observer or source (𝒄 = 𝟐. 𝟗𝟗𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝒎/𝒔)
In 1907, Michelson wins the Nobel Prize in Physics,
mostly for this famous “failed” experiment.
 SPECIAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY
In 1905, Albert Einstein
changed our perception of
the world forever &
developed a new theory of
relativity at the age of 26,
that abolishes the concept
of absolute space & time

Postulates:
All laws of physics (mechanics and electricity & magnetism)
1 are the same in all inertial frames of reference.
The speed of light in vacuum is constant and independent of
2 the motion of the source or the motion of the observer.
On the basis of these postulates, Einstein concluded the
following:
1. No material particle can travel with speed equal to or
greater than the speed of light
𝟏
2. All clocks in spaceship run slow by a factor of 𝟐 𝒗
𝟏− 𝟐
𝒄

𝒗𝟐
3. Length of spaceship decrease by a factor of 𝟏−
𝒄𝟐
𝟏
4. Mass of spaceship increase by a factor of
𝒗𝟐
𝟏− 𝟐
𝒄
5. Mass and Energy are inter-convertible and follow the law
𝑬 = 𝒎𝒄𝟐
𝒗𝟏 ± 𝒗 𝟐
6. Velocity addition follow the law 𝒗𝟏 𝒗𝟐
𝟏 ±
𝒄𝟐
1 v / c
7. Relativistic Doppler effect is given by:   0
1 v / c
Lorentz Transformations
Equations which relate the measurements of stationary frame of
reference with the moving frame moving with v → c
Galilean Transformations were
𝒙′ = 𝒙 − 𝒗𝒕 These transformations were not
𝒚′ = 𝒚 consistent with the theory of
𝒛′ = 𝒛 RELATIVITY, and hence new
𝒕′ = 𝒕 transformations were developed
Let transformations be: Inverse HERE
Transformations
𝒙′ = 𝜷(𝒙 − 𝒗𝒕) 𝒙 = 𝜷(𝒙′ +𝒗𝒕′ ) 𝜷 = 𝜷 𝒗 = 𝜷(- 𝒗)
𝒚′ = 𝒚 𝒚 = 𝒚′ and
𝒛′ = 𝒛 𝒛 = 𝒛′
𝒕 ≠ 𝒕′ 𝜷 → 𝟏 if 𝒗 ≪ 𝒄
𝒕′ ≠ 𝒕
𝒙 = 𝜷(𝒙′ +𝒗𝒕′ ) 𝒙′ = 𝜷(𝒙 − 𝒗𝒕)
𝒙 = 𝜷 𝜷(𝒙 − 𝒗𝒕) + 𝒗𝒕′
𝟏 − 𝜷𝟐 𝒙 = −𝜷𝟐 𝒗𝒕 + 𝜷𝒗𝒕′
(𝟏 − 𝜷 𝟐)
𝒕′ = 𝜷𝒕 + 𝒙 𝑪𝒍𝒆𝒂𝒓𝒍𝒚 𝒕′ ≠ 𝒕
𝜷𝒗

Now, suppose a source of light emits a light flash such that the
distance travelled by a stationary and moving frame be:
𝒙 = 𝒄𝒕
And 𝒙′ = 𝒄𝒕′ Separate the
(𝟏 − 𝜷𝟐 ) value of x from
𝜷 𝒙 − 𝒗𝒕 = 𝒄 𝜷𝒕 + 𝒙 here to get
𝜷𝒗 𝒙 = 𝒄𝒕
 We get 𝒗
𝟏+
𝒄
𝒙 = 𝒄𝒕 𝒄 𝟏−𝜷𝟐
Transformation will be 𝟏− 𝒗
𝜷𝟐
valid if and only if
𝒗 𝟏
𝟏+ 𝒄 𝜷=
𝒄 𝟏−𝜷𝟐
=𝟏 𝒗𝟐
𝟏− 𝒗 𝟏− 𝟐
𝜷𝟐 𝒄
Lorentz transformations are: Inverse Lorentz transformations
𝒙 − 𝒗𝒕 𝒙′ + 𝒗𝒕′
𝒙′ = 𝒙=
𝒗𝟐 𝒗𝟐
𝟏− 𝟐 𝟏− 𝟐
𝒄 𝒚′ = 𝒚 𝒚 = 𝒚′
𝒄
𝒗 𝒛′ = 𝒛 𝒛 = 𝒛′ ′ 𝒗
𝒕 − 𝟐𝒙 𝒕 + 𝟐 𝒙′
𝒕′ = 𝒄 𝒕= 𝒄
𝒗𝟐 𝒗𝟐
𝟏− 𝟐 𝟏− 𝟐
𝒄 𝒄
Time Dilation/Relativity of Time

To

v (in the unit of c)

 Length Contraction/Relativity of Length

Lo

v (in the unit of c)

Lorentz-Fitzgerald Contraction
Relativity of Mass
Rest mass mo &
relativistic mass m
of a body are
related as:

m
𝒎𝒐
𝒎=
𝒗𝟐
𝟏− 𝟐
𝒄 mo

v (in the unit of c)

 Einstein’s Mass- Energy Relation
Let a body is being accelerated by an external force such that
small increase in its KE when small work is done on it is:
𝑑(𝑚𝑣)
𝑑𝐸𝑘 = 𝑑𝑤 = 𝐹. 𝑑𝑥 = . 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑 𝑚𝑣 . 𝑣
𝑑𝑡
= 𝑚. 𝑑𝑣 + 𝑣. 𝑑𝑚 . 𝑣 = 𝑚𝑣. 𝑑𝑣 + 𝑣 2 . 𝑑𝑚
𝑑𝐸𝑘 = 𝑚𝑣. 𝑑𝑣 + 𝑣 2 . 𝑑𝑚
𝒎𝒐 𝑚0 2𝑐 2
Also 𝒎= 𝑚2 = 𝒄𝟐 −𝒗𝟐
𝒗𝟐
𝟏− 𝟐
𝒄

𝑚2 (𝒄𝟐 −𝒗𝟐 ) = 𝑚0 2𝑐 2 Differentiating both sides

2𝑚. 𝑑𝑚(𝒄𝟐 −𝒗𝟐 ) + 𝑚2 (0 − 2𝑣. 𝑑𝑣) = 0
𝑑𝑚. 𝒄𝟐 = 𝑚𝑣. 𝑑𝑣 + 𝑣 2 . 𝑑𝑚
 𝒅𝑬𝒌 = 𝒅𝒎. 𝒄𝟐 Deduction of classical Results

Integrating both sides 𝑬𝒌 = 𝒄𝟐 (𝒎 − 𝒎𝒐 ) = 𝒄𝟐 ( 𝒎𝒐

− 𝒎𝒐 )
𝒗𝟐
with proper limits 𝟏− 𝟐
𝒄
𝑬𝒌 𝒎 𝟏
−
𝒅𝑬𝒌 = 𝒄𝟐 𝒅𝒎 𝒗𝟐 𝟐
𝒐 𝒎𝒐 = 𝒎𝒐 𝒄𝟐 𝟏− −𝟏
𝒄𝟐
𝑬𝒌 = 𝒄𝟐 (𝒎 − 𝒎𝒐 )
𝒗𝟐
𝑬𝒌 + 𝒎𝒐 𝒄𝟐 = 𝒎𝒄𝟐 𝑬𝒌 = 𝒎𝒐 𝒄𝟐 𝟏+ 𝟐
+⋯ −𝟏
𝟐𝒄
Total energy
In classical limit 𝒗 ≪ 𝒄
𝑬 = 𝒎𝒄𝟐 𝒗𝟐 𝟏
𝑬𝒌 = 𝒎𝒐 𝒄𝟐 = 𝒎𝒐 𝒗 𝟐
𝟐𝒄𝟐 𝟐
𝑬𝒌 = 𝒄𝟐 (𝒎 − 𝒎𝒐 )
and In classical limit 𝒎 = 𝒎𝒐
Relativistic
Kinetic energy 𝟏
𝑬𝒌 = 𝒎𝒗𝟐
𝟐
 Moment- Energy Relation
𝒎𝒐 𝒎 𝟐 𝟒
𝒐 𝒄
𝑬 = 𝒎𝒄𝟐 = 𝒄𝟐 𝟐
𝑬 =
𝒗𝟐 𝒗𝟐
𝟏− 𝟐 𝟏− 𝟐
𝒄 𝒄
𝒎𝒐 𝒗 𝒎𝒐
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
𝒄 𝒗
𝒑 = 𝒎𝒗 = 𝟐 𝟐
𝒑 𝒄 =
𝒗𝟐 𝒗𝟐
𝟏− 𝟐 𝟏− 𝟐
𝒄 𝒄
𝒎 𝟐 𝒄𝟒 𝒗 𝟐
𝒐
𝑬𝟐 − 𝒑𝟐 𝒄𝟐 = 𝟐
𝟏− 𝟐 𝑬= 𝒑 𝟐 𝒄 𝟐 + 𝒎𝒐 𝟐 𝒄 𝟒
𝒗 𝒄
𝟏− 𝟐
𝒄
But, for massless
particles like photon,
neutrinos rest mass 𝑬 = 𝒑𝒄
𝒎𝒐 = 0