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TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO FORESTRY 1
1.1. Concepts of Forestry 1
1.2. Types of Forests 1
CHAPTER 2. FOREST COVER HISTORY OF ETHIOPIA 2
2.1. Forest Status of Ethiopia 2
2.2. Natural forests 4
2.3. Plantation Forests 5
2.4. Woodlands and Other Vegetation 5
CHAPTER 3. IMPORTANCE OF FORESTS IN ETHIOPIA 6
3.1. Role of Forests 6
CHAPTER 4. FOREST SEED COLLECTION AND HANDLING 8
4.1. Selection of Seed Source 8
4.2. Seed Collection 8
4.2.1. Pre- collection planning 9
4.2.2. Seed collection techniques 9
4.3. Seed processing 11
4.4. Seed Storage 13
4.5. Seed testing 14
4.6. Pre sowing treatments 17
CHAPTER 5. NURSERY ESTABLISHMENT AND MANAGEMENT 18
5.1. Type of Forest Nursery 18
5.2. Planning of Forest Nursery 19
5.1.1. Selection of a nursery site 19
5.2.2. Nursery layout 21
5.3. Preparation of nursery site 21
5.3.1. Soil and bed preparation 22
5.3.2. Type of seedling 22
5.3.3. Seed sowing techniques and transplanting 23
5.3.4. Care, protection and conditioning of seedlings 24
5.3. 5. Quality control, dispatch and transport of seedlings 28
5.4. Raising Plants through Vegetative Propagation 28
5.5. Management of Forest Nursery 29

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CHAPTER 6. PLANTATION ESTABLISHMENT AND MANAGEMENT 30
6.1. Why Plantation Forestry? 30
6.2. Social and Economic Factors in Plantation Development 30
6.2.1. Protective forestry 30
6.2.2. Production forestry 31
6.2.3. Choice of species and site matching 31
6.2.4. Pros and cons of exotic vs. indigenous species 32
6.3.1. Site reconnaissance 32
6.3.2. Selection of planting site 33
6.3.3. Site preparation 33
6.3.4. Planting 35
6.4. Maintenance of Plantations 36
6.4.1. Fertilizer at and after planting 36
6.4.2. Mulching, fencing and fire protection 36
6.4.3. Protection against diseases and insect pests 36
6.4.4. Weeding and thinning 37
6.4.5. Replacement planting 37
6.4.6. Harvesting 38
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CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO FORESTRY

1.1. Concepts of Forestry
Forest is a biological community of plants and animals existing in a complex interaction with non-
living environment; which includes such factors as the soil, climate and physiographic. Forest is a
dynamic ecosystem that is continually changing in structure and composition. According to FAO
2015 definition, forest is a land spanning more than 0.5 hectares with trees higher than 5 meters
and a canopy cover of more than 10 percent, or trees able to reach these thresholds in situ. Forestry
is defined as the science, business, art of creating, conserving and managing forests and forest
lands for the continuous use of their resources. A forest ecosystem is similar to any other
ecosystem, also comprises of abiotic and biotic components. Abiotic components refers to
inorganic materials like air, water, and soil. Biotic components include plants and animals.
Generally, components of forest includes; trees/shrubs; substrate on which they depend for
support, soil/nutrient and moisture; the other plant with which they interact, competition, benefit;
animals that feed on, shelter under, or benefit the plants; microorganisms that exert direct or
indirect effects on the trees and other living organisms; soil and atmospheric climate that
influences the distribution of all the organisms in the forest.
The above components broadly classified in to biotic (plants, animals and micro-organisms or
producers, consumers, and decomposers) and abiotic (nonliving things like soil, water, climate).
All of these components together make up a forest ecosystem.

1.2. Types of Forests

1. Boreal forests: are found between 50 and 60 degrees latitude in North America, Asia, and
Europe. Beneath boreal forests are land shapped with glacers that left a legacy in the geology,
hydrology, and soils of the area. Boreal forests’ bitter cold climate makes it difficult for life,
leading to low species diversity compared to temperate and tropical forests. The plants and animals
that do live in boreal forests are specially adapted to cope with short growing seasons and cold
temperatures. Due to their vastness and remoteness, boreal forests are important storers of carbon.
Boreal forests have the shortest growing season, about 130 days. Boreal forests tend to have
shallow, acidic, nutrient-poor soils. Conifers are the most abundant type of tree, although there are
some well-adapted deciduous trees such as willows, poplars, and alders, as well.
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2. Temperate forests: are located at mid-latitudes, which gives them their characteristic four
seasons. Very few patches of old-growth temperate forest remain; the zone is dominated by
secondary forests. Temperate forests are inhabited by species adapted for seasonality. Deciduous
trees like maples, hickories, oaks, and many others drop their leaves and become dormant in the
fall and winter to save energy. Bears, bobcats, squirrels, and deer make their homes in temperate
forests and can store food, adapt their diet, or hibernate to cope with the lack of nutritious foods in
the winter. Although temperate forests have seasonality in common, they vary widely in yearly
precipitation and temperature. Annual temperatures range from -22 degrees F to 86 degrees F
depending on location and season. Temperate forests are home to many endangered species. In the
U.S., 12 mammal species listed as Endangered by the Fish and Wildlife Service live in temperate
forest habitats.

3. Tropical forests: have relatively stable conditions that have allowed life to thrive. They are the
warmest and rainiest forests on Earth, with temperatures ranging between 68 degrees F and 77
degrees F, with 79 to 394 inches of rain annually. Tropical forests are known for their extraordinary
biodiversity. The Amazon rainforest, for example, is home to 10% of the world's described species.
The diversity of tropical forests makes them very efficient at processing nutrients. Dead and
decaying matter is quickly broken down by decomposers and almost instantly taken up by another
organism. This makes tropical forest soils nutrient-poor. To cope with poor soils, many tropical
trees have adapted shallow root system that spread across the forest floor and can more easily take
in nutrients.

CHAPTER 2. FOREST COVER HISTORY OF ETHIOPIA

2.1. Forest Status of Ethiopia
Diverse physiographic, altitudinal, climatic and edaphic resources, enables Ethiopia to have
various types of vegetation ranging from alpine to desert plant communities which provide
economical, socio-cultural and environmental benefits. Historical evidences revealed that a few
hundred years ago more than 63% of the total land mass of Ethiopia was covered by dense forests.
In relation to resource depletion, Ethiopians are facing rapid deforestation and land degradation
that has been fueled by increased population which in turn resulted in extensive forest clearing for
agricultural use, overgrazing, exploitation of existing forests for fuel wood, fodder and
construction materials, setting of fire to create pasture land and expansion of settlements. As a
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result, there has been a rapid decreasing percentage of the forest cover of the country from 40% in
1900 to 16% in 1954, 8% in 1961, 4% in 1975, and 3.2% in 1980. Current rate of deforestation is
estimated to be 150,000 ha y-1. According to FRA, 2015 report of Ethiopian forest coverage was
more than 11.5 million ha which 15% of the country total land. State natural resource policy was
also responsible for aggravating the process of land degradation.
The imperial regime laid claim to all “unutilized” land, land that had no “legal” owners, and all
forests, lakes and river systems which ended up with friction between communities and the
government. To deny the state rights over a given piece of land, individuals cleared it of vegetation
and ploughed it up; large tracts of pastureland, land that was fragile in nature and forestland were
changed into cultivable land in the 1950s and 1960s. This alarming rate of deforestation is the
major cause of the disappearance of various indigenous wild animals and plants, and it has also
brought about adverse effects on the country’s tourism industry, bio-diversity and economy,
among others. Forest destruction results multifaceted problems.
• Change of micro/macro climate and in hydrological cycles,
• Causes the disappearance of wild animals, birds and reptiles,
• Affects the natural beauty of an area,
• Accelerates run off and soil erosion,
• Shortage of rainfall,
• Increase in siltation of dams and reservoir,
• Results to increase in carbon dioxide that in turn causes an increase in temperature,
• Causes extinction and loss of economically important indigenous plant and animal species,
• Land degradation greatly affects agricultural productivity and production.
Tree planting activities has a long history in Ethiopia. According to historical records, afforestation
started in the early 1400s by the order of King Zera- Yakob but modern tree planting using
introduced tree species (Australian Eucalyptus) was started when Emperor Menillik II looked into
solutions for alleviating shortage of firewood and construction wood in the capital, Addis Ababa.
During the Derge regime, rapid expansion of large scale and community plantations occurred
which resulted in the establishment of large scale plantations mainly for supplying the huge
demand for wood products in Ethiopia. For instance, in 1981, peri-urban fuel wood plantation
projects were launched in Addis Ababa, Nazareth (Adama) and Debre Berhan and latter in Gondar
and Dessie. This is a type of environmental protection paradigm because the plantation scheme
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was undertaken in response to critical shortage of fuel wood. Environmental protection by its
nature is a defensive or remedial in practice and legalizes the environment as an economic
externality. Rather than showing the ecological impact of forest destruction, more emphasis was
given to its economic benefit (source of fuel).
During the EPRDF government of Ethiopia articulated the seriousness of forest destruction in the
Climate Resilient Green Economy (CRGE) document (FDRE, 2011) and as a solution, reduction
of demand for fuel wood by disseminating fuel efficient stoves; increasing afforestation and re-
forestation schemes; and promoting area closure via rehabilitation of degraded pastureland and
farmland are forwarded as a viable strategy.
2.2. Natural forests
High forests, either coniferous or broad-leaved, were the climax vegetation of 35-40% of Ethiopia
before human settlement took place. With the inclusion of savanna woodlands, some 66% of the
country was originally covered with forest or woodlands. Over the last 3000 years, there has been
progressive deforestation, which has accelerated tremendously during the last century. Rapid
population growth (3% per year), extensive forest clearing for cultivation, over-grazing, movement
of political centers, and exploitation of forests for fuelwood and construction materials without
replanting has reduced the forest area of the country to 16% in the 1950s and to 3.1% by 1982
(UNEP, 1983). The forests on the highlands can be broadly divided into dry montane forests and
moist montane forests. The dry montane forests are dominated by hard leaved evergreens, while
the moist montane forests are characterized by large broad leaved and soft leaved [Link] dry
montane forests are dominated by Juniperus procera, Podocarpus gracilor, and Olea europaea. The
wet montane forests consists of species like Aningeria adolfi-friederici, Olea welwitschii, O.
hochstetter, and Croton macrostachyus. Mountain cane (Arundinaria alpina) stands are also found
at humid highland elevation areas (2,500 –3,400 m.) as scattered, but large and compact
concentration (FAO, 1981). However, because of deforestation, much of the highlands at present
are covered with wooded grasslands in which secondary tree species like Acacia abyssinica,
Acacia negrii and Acacia pilispina occur.
The remaining natural forest areas are located primarily in the south and southwest of the country.
High forests in these areas have been identified and efforts are being made to conserve, protect and
manage these resources on a sustain yield bases. Little of the natural vegetation of the highlands
remains today. The influence of man and his domestic animals has profoundly altered both the
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vegetation and the landscape. Ecological degradation, including deforestation and erosion is wide
spread, particularly in the northern and central highlands.
2.3. Plantation Forests
Plantation forests are cultivated forest ecosystems established by planting and/or seeding,
which aids in the process of afforestation and reforestation for the purposes of wood biomass
production, soil and water conservation and/or wind protection. Plantations comprise either
introduced species (all planted stands) or intensively managed stands of indigenous species,
which meet the following criteria: one or two species of uniform age that are regularly spaced
and are characterized by relatively short rotations when compared with natural forests. Ethiopia
has engaged in plantation development for over 100 years. Tree plantations are comprised of
three sub-types: commercial/industrial plantation, wood-lots, and peri-urban plantation (mainly
for fuelwood). The plantation forests in Ethiopia are comprised mainly of exotic tree species.
With the decline and subsequent banning of industrial wood production from natural forests
combined with growing demand for wood products, the importance of plantation forests is
th
increasing. Forest plantation have started by the turn of the 19 century, when Emperor Menelik
requested his advisor to get him a fast growing tree species to overcome the fuelwood shortage
he faced at the time. During the early 19th hundred, it was reported most of Addis Ababa was
covered by forests and there were about 13,500 hectares of Eucalyptus plantation.
Currently, the total area of plantation forests in Ethiopia is estimated at 972,000 ha.
Afforestation/reforestation practices are meant primarily to increase the supply of wood
products in the country. These practices comprise mainly three forms: industrial plantation,
peri-urban energy forestry and small-scale plantations. The former two are mainly government-
driven, while the third is undertaken principally by farming households. Often termed non-
industrial plantations, smallholder woodlots are the main suppliers of poles for electricity and
scaffolding and contribute a significant share of the biomass fuel consumed nationally.
2.4. Woodlands and Other Vegetation
Woodland is land spanning more than 0.5 hectares with trees higher than 5 m and a canopy cover
of 5–10 percent, or trees able to reach these thresholds in situ; or with a combined cover of
shrubs, bushes and trees above 10 percent. They provide a wide range of economic, social, and
ecological benefits, ranging from cultural to tangible economic values. The Ethiopian montane
grasslands and woodlands is a montane grasslands and shrub lands ecoregion in Ethiopia. It
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occupies the middle elevations of the Ethiopian Highlands, between the high-altitude Ethiopian
montane woodlands and the lower elevation Ethiopian montane forests. Under proper
stewardship, this important capital asset can play a critical role in human livelihood, as well as
in ecosystem functioning and health. They are also important for helping people adapt to the
impacts of climate change. These wide-ranging roles of woodlands have received renewed
recognition in recent times. Of all land cover changes, forest/woodland cover change or
deforestation is one of the oldest and most important changes that people have made to the
surface of the earth. Woodlands are still under threat by various extractive human activities that
result in degradation of habitat, land fragmentation, and land-use change (e.g., from forestry to
agriculture). Climate change can also exacerbate these pressures and exert significant negative
impacts on the capacity of woodlands to provide vital ecosystem services.
According to WBISPP, Ethiopia has just over 4 million hectares of high forest (3.56% of the
area of the country), 29.24 million hectares of woodland (25.5%), and 26.4 million hectares of
shrub land (23.1%). Acacia woodlands cover about 55% of the total woodland area, i.e., more
than the other types of woodlands altogether. Acacia woodlands are mainly concentrated in the
lowlands of the Rift Valley and are the climax vegetation of the area.
CHAPTER 3. IMPORTANCE OF FORESTS IN ETHIOPIA
3.1. Role of Forests
Forest provide most goods and services that include timber, non-timber forest products, protection
of clean water and clean air, soil erosion control, biodiversity, esthetics, carbon sequestration, and
climate control. Ethiopian forests generated economic benefits in the form of cash and in-kind
income equivalent to 111.2 billion Ethiopian Birr (ETB) (USD16.7 billion) or 12.86% of the Gross
Domestic Product (GDP) in 2012–13, considerably larger than previously thought. Of this, 6.09%
of GDP is attributed to forest industries. The contribution of forest ecosystems to other sectors,
particularly agriculture, is valued at 6.77% of GDP. In addition, 2.4 billion ETB was attributed to
non-market benefits based on Ethiopians’ willingness to pay to maintain forests
(UNEP 2016). Forests provide various goods and services to producers, traders, and consumers
such as fodder, fuel, medicine and commercial non-timber forest products (FAO 2010; Abebaw et
al., 2012). However, knowledge of the faith of Ethiopian communities in woodland forests for fuel
wood, construction materials, medicinal plants, and gums and resins and factors affecting this faith
on forest income is limited (Teshome et al., 2015). The household forest income level is
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significantly influenced by family size, producer’s cooperative membership of producers in gums
and resins, and distance to forest resources (Mamo et al., 2007; Teshome et al., 2015). Generally,
forests have the following functions:
1. Economic functions
Employment and revenues: The forestry sector generates significant revenues and employment,
such as guava, tamarind, fodder collectors, woodcutters, handicraft artisans, game keepers, etc. It
provides livelihood to the low-income group and hence contributes in poverty alleviation.
Timber, poles and fuelwood: Although wood exploitation has significantly decreased on State
lands over the last ten years, forests and trees provide valuable timber, poles and fuelwood, which
are renewable commodities, when properly managed.
Non-wood forest products (NWFP): NWFPs usually provide essential food and nutrition (eg.
Deer, wild pigs, honey, vegetable, fibers, fodder medicine, fodder) and other related domestic
requirements to rural populations as well as urban consumers. Additionally, NWFPs play an
important social and cultural role.
Medicinal plant: Forests harbor many medicinal plants which are used as traditional medicine.
Many plants and herbs are potential sources for new drugs that could cure modern-day ailments.
Ecotourism: Ecotourism is on the rise and is a promising sub-sector of the tourism industry. It
offers more scope for employment and revenue generation than timber production, which is
significantly decreasing.
Fruits: Seasonal fruits provide part-time employment for the low-income group; they are also a
rich source of vitamin.
2. Environmental functions
Soil and water conservation: Forest and trees reduce the rate of surface run-off of water. They
prevent and check flash-floods and soil erosion, and produce prolonged gradual run-off and hence
provide a safeguard against drought.
Carbon dioxide (CO2) sequestration and mitigation of global: warming Forests, forest soils
and trees sequestrate tremendous amount of CO2 and hence help in the mitigation of global
warming.
Habitat for wildlife and conservation of biodiversity: Forests are habitats for a variety of
wildlife including rare plants, birds and insects. Our native forests are storehouses of biological
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diversity. They harbour the rich native and endemic fauna and flora, which represent the
remarkable genetic resources of the country
Water and air purification: The forests act as a sponge, absorbing rain-water through channels
created by the tree roots and slowly filtering and releasing it in streams, rivers and reservoirs.
Forests and trees release large amount of oxygen to maintain the air balance. Moreover, they
cleanse the air by intercepting airborne particles and pollutants such as carbon monoxide, sulphur
dioxide and nitrogen dioxide.
Protecting water reservoirs against sedimentation: By checking soil erosion, forests protect
reservoirs, rivers and coastal lagoons against sedimentation.
Protection against cyclone and salt spray Coastal: Forests and trees stabilize sand dunes and
act as a buffer against cyclonic winds and salt spray. Moreover, mangroves provide a rich habitat
for crabs, fish and shrimps.
3. Socio-cultural functions
Leisure and recreation: Forests offer unique leisure and recreational opportunities for both the
local population and tourists.
Meditation and Spiritual sites: Our forests offer great scope for meditation and spiritualism.
In religious ceremonies: Some forest products such as camphor, cypress and sandal wood are
used in religious ceremonies.
CHAPTER 4. FOREST SEED COLLECTION AND HANDLING
4.1. Selection of Seed Source
Selection of mother tree: Genetic factors combined with environmental factors determine the
characteristics of the young tree as it grows. Seeds from straight and vigorous trees will most likely
produce straight and vigorous trees, while twisted or stunted trees may produce the same
deformities. Thus the selection of good mother trees is important. Selection of mother trees should
be related to the intended use of the trees to be grown. Shrubs or trees that produce particularly
dense or thorny branches are best for fencing, whereas fast-growing and straight trees are best for
poles and timber. Trees that produce palatable, dense foliage and/or pods are best for fodder. If
seeds are collected on a large scale, it is important to collect them from several trees in order to
provide genetic variation in the new generation of trees.
4.2. Seed Collection
Obtaining and maintaining supplies of good seed depends upon an understanding of the best
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techniques for collecting, extraction and storing seed and material factors which influence their
viability. An adequate supply of good quality seed is a prerequisite for successful artificial
regeneration. The most common objective of seed collection in the Tropics is to support local tree
nurseries. Nurseries are the principal source of tree seedlings for homeowners, cities, farmers, and
conservation and forest management organizations that use the seedlings for ornamental,
agricultural, agroforestry, conservation, and silvicultural purposes.
4.2.1. Pre- collection planning
Species which bear ripe seed in adequate quantities at all times present little problem to the
experienced seed collector, but such species are few. Some species bear seed throughout the year
but only a little at any one time (and this makes seed collection slow and expensive. In the majority
of species the seeding season is concentrated within a few weeks and the collector's objective is to
collect as much of the crop as possible within the short period while the seeds are mature but the
fruits have not yet fallen. Prior planning of collecting activities is therefore essential in order to
ensure that operations are conducted as quickly and efficiently as possible in the limited time
available.
Different tree species produce seeds at different times, and one species may even produce seeds at
different times in different areas. Seed collection is, therefore, an activity that can and should be
considered throughout the year. Seeds should be collected when they are mature and ripe, but not
damaged by insects or fungi. This calls for close monitoring of seeding trees of the desired species
during the seeding period. It is necessary to check the seed quality with regard to insect damage
even if the seeds are collected directly from the tree, and even more so if the seeds are collected
from the ground. Seeds of Croton macrostachyus and Albizia spp. are examples of seeds which
are often damaged while still on the tree.
4.2.2. Seed collection techniques
Collection techniques to use depends on factors like the way a species disperses, size of the fruit/
seed, tree characteristics like diameter, height, bark thickness, crown size have and stand
characteristics like tree frequency, undergrowth and underground vegetation influence
accessibility and the need for preparation. There are two major techniques:
1. Collection of fallen seeds/fruits
After natural dispersal: for species with big seeds or fruits that drop when matured.
The method involves large plastic sheets or nets under the tree or clearing the site under.
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Advantage: Easy, cheap, requiring less skill
Disadvantage: Loss of viability of many tropical species’ seeds after dispersal; attack by insects
and fungi, competitors and Inefficient for tiny seeds.
After manual or mechanical shaking: For seeds/fruits which detach easily after shaking
manually or mechanically; manually it is limited to small trees, mechanical shakers (high cost/hr.,
and requires skill).
2. Collection from the crown
It a technique in which seed is collected from the tree. This technique is advantageous when: fruits
release too tiny seeds (and it is difficult to pick from the ground); It is necessary to determine
identity of mother trees; It is needed to avoid competitors; When seeds germinate soon after
dropping; and When seeds rot easily once they have fallen.
Access from the ground: In the case of shrubs or tree with low branches, the collector would
stand on the ground and pick seeds, branches are bent over and seeds released to bags or canvas.
Advantage: Easy and cheap
Disadvantage: fruits of lower branches of some species contain few seeds, possibly of insufficient
pollination. Moreover, lower branches often bear less viable seeds due to old age and low
photosynthesis.
Collection from crown (climbing): When there is a limit of the height to which long handled
tools can be used for collecting seeds and then the climbing in to the crown of the mother tree is
only the practical method.
Equipment: Ladder, climbing spurs, safety belts, safety ropes, glove, helmet, boots with non-
slipping sole, cotton underwear.
Disadvantages: dangerous, exhausting, time consuming, expensive, requires experience.
Using pole implements: Collection from the ground but using pruning shears, hooked poles
(sometimes used to bend and shake). Poles should be made of light but rigid material; bamboo,
aluminum)
Using ropes: with a weight on one end and throwing it over a chosen brunch; twisting and pulling
the brunch. However, skill is required in throwing rope over the aimed brunch. Skill required in
throwing rope over the aimed brunch, but once the collector is experienced, ropes are cheaper.
Collection from felled trees: Easy and cheap, but never fell a tree for collecting seeds, use a tree
felled for another purpose.
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4.3. Seed processing

Several techniques have been designed to evaluate the quality of seed. The primary emphasis of
the seed quality is for physical purity. Seed processing is necessary in order to dry the seeds to safe
moisture level; remove or reduce to the extent possible the various undesirable material, weed
seeds, other crop seeds, deteriorated or damaged seeds; uniform size grading and seed treatment
to upgrade the overall seed quality. Seed processing is involvement of various methods and
techniques used to obtain clean, high quality seeds.
1. Seed extraction and cleaning
In majority of species, however, fruits are collected but seeds are sown. The aim is to maximize
production of clean seeds having maximum viability. The processes involved are: De-pulping,
Drying, Separation (tumbling, threshing and de-winging) and Cleaning.
Activities Prior to Extraction:
Processing is often done at a central processing depot. However, the distance can be too long, and
seeds can lose their viability unless some prior measures are taken. Such as;
Place for temporary storage: Dry cool and well-ventilated seeds may be kept in containers or
spread depending on their nature. In the latter case, wooden floors, wire trays are recommended as
opposed to concrete.
Facilities include: hammocks (amount contained in a basket), racks (stands for carrying seeds)
wire baskets, timber boxes.
Pre-cleaning: cones and fruits need to be cleaned of twigs, bark foliage and other impurities
because they can carry fungus spores, invite insects) (by hand, floatation, vibrators).
Pre-curing: The processes assisted by pre-curing are seed maturation and fruit by kiln drying.
This is because fruits do not ripen at the same time even for the same species; and pre-curing
promotes a gradual decrease of moisture content and also prevents case-hardening.
Seed Extraction
It is the separation of fruits from seeds. This is necessary to: reduce weight and volume; enable
more rapid drying; for storage under low risk of fungal attack and eliminate the negative impact
of fruit chemistry on germination. Extraction methods depend on the nature of the fruit:
1. De-pulping: for fleshy fruits such as Podocarpus, Olea, Azadirachta, Melea, Prunus, and
Juniperus. For such species the pulp must be removed soon to avoid fermentation and heating.
Soaking the fruit, then the flesh hand squeezed or mashed by wooden blocks, rolling pin or
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fruit press; or macerating flesh by rubbing it against or through a screen. HCl can soften pulp,
and NaOH can cut resin when Juniper berries are being treated.
2. Extraction by Drying: It uses natural or artificial heat source. Drying can be: under cover,
sun drying or kiln drying.
I. Drying under cover: used as an extraction method for species that cannot withstand direct sun
light, and must be stored at relatively high moisture content. Good ventilation required. The time
required depends on the relative humidity.
ii. Sun drying: this is for species that can withstand high temperature.
iii. Kiln drying: Problems encountered when trying to control humidity and temperature may
complicate drying by natural methods. Artificial methods: when large amount of seeds have to be
processed, When regulation of temperature and moisture is required (often, natural drying may not
be sufficient to achieve the desired moisture content) When we want to save time.
Operations between extraction and storage
 Cleaning and separation
 Grading
 Species related moisture content for storage
a) Cleaning and separation
De-winging (especially when the wing is greater than the seed). It is done manually or by machine
Machine formerly used to beat or rub harvested plants in order to separate the seeds from the rest
of the plant). The characteristics by which sound seeds may be distinguished from inert matter
including sterile and empty seeds are: size, shape, color, texture and specific gravity. The first
three are the major criteria for visual separation, while seed-cleaning machines employ size and
specific gravity.
Screening or sieving:
Blowing: This includes falling, floatation (moving the seed lightly through the air) and rising
Liquid floatation (moving the seed on the surface of liquid). Degree of purity is expressed in
percentage of purity. The maximum economically achievable purity varies from species to species
and depending on size of the seed; the bigger the size, the higher the purity.
b) Grading: this is done based on size because there is a high correlation between size and vigor.
c) Drying/ moistening for storage: appropriate species related drying for storage of orthodox
seeds, or moistening recalcitrant seeds to the required moisture content. The drying process
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requires a regular control of moisture content because:
 Above 45-60 % …Germination begins
 18-20 %…Seeds may heat up because of a rapid rate of respiration
 12-14 %…Fungus may grow
 Below 8-9 %…insect activity reduced
 4-8 %…Air tight storage is safe
4.4. Seed Storage
There are two main methods of storage, determined by the class of seed that has to be stored. Most
species have seeds that store best when dry ('orthodox' seed), but some species have seed that
will lose viability if dried and must therefore be kept moist during storage ('recalcitrant' seed).
Orthodox seeds can be stored successfully for long periods at low temperature and low moisture
content. Orthodox seeds are long-lived seeds and can be successfully dried to moisture
contents as low as 5% without injury and are able to tolerate freezing. Orthodox seeds are therefore,
also termed as desiccation tolerant seeds. In fact, the life span of orthodox seeds can be prolonged
with low moisture content and freezing temperatures. Ex-situ conservation of orthodox seeds is
therefore, not problematic. Orthodox seeds are exemplified by most annual and biennial crops and
Agro -forestry species which are relatively small-seeded (in comparison to unorthodox seeds).
Orthodox seeds include for example, cowpea, Citrus aurantifolia,Capsicum annum,Hamelia
patens, Lantana camara, guava (Psidium guajava), Cashew (Anacardium occidentale)and most
grains and legume types.
Recalcitrant seeds die if their moisture content is reduced below some relatively high value.
Recalcitrant seeds could not be dried below a relatively critical moisture content and could not
tolerate freezing temperatures. Recalcitrant seeds lose viability once they are dried to a moisture
content below a relatively high critical value. Recalcitrant seeds are remarkably short-lived
which cannot be dried to moisture content below 20-30% without injury and are unable to
tolerate freezing. Recalcitrant seeds are therefore, also termed as desiccation sensitive seeds. These
are difficult to be successfully stored and their ex-situ conservation is problematic. It is
because of their high moisture content that encourages microbial contamination and results in more
rapid seed deterioration. Storage of recalcitrant seeds at freezing temperatures causes the formation
of ice-crystals which disrupt cell membranes and causes freezing injury. The plants that produce
recalcitrant seeds must best or ending rowing phase (i.e., as growing plants) rather than as seeds
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and propagated vegetative. Recalcitrant species belong to trees and shrubs of mostly tropics and
of temperate are as which are moist and some plants which grow in aquatic environment. Some
common examples of plants that produce recalcitrant seeds (which are generally larger than
orthodox seeds) include, pointed gourd, chow-chow, avocado, cocoa, coconut, jackfruit, litchi,
mango, rubber, tea, some horticultural trees, and several plants used in traditional medicine.
Classification of Seed Based on Storage Behavior
Seeds divided into three biological classes according to their life span under ordinary storage
conditions:
A. Microbiotic- seeds with life spans not exceeding 3 years.
B. Mesobiotic- seeds with life spans from 3 to 15 years.
C. Macrobiotic- seeds with life spans from 15 to 100 or more years.
4.5. Seed testing
Tests for maturity and soundness of seed before and during collection in the forest have been
described in previous topic and they are intended to ensure that both the quantity and the quality
of seed justify the effort and cost of collection. The tests which may be required are purity,
authenticity, seed weight, germination, indirect testing of viability, moisture content, and seed
health and damage.
Purity analysis
The percentage of pure seed is calculated as follows:

Seed weight
The 1000 pure seed weight can be converted to seeds per g or per kg as follows:

Or

If the sample counted is other than 1000 seeds, the appropriate formula is:

Or
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Germination Testing
The main aim of a laboratory germination test is to estimate the maximum number of seeds which
can germinate in optimum conditions. With a few exceptions, all germination tests should be made
with pure seeds separated by the purity test. The pure seed must be well mixed and counted at
random into replicates. The seeds should then be spaced uniformly on the test substrate. Normally
one test consists of 400 seeds in 4 replicates of 100 seeds each, but if 100 seeds overcrowd the test
substrate, the replicates may be broken down into a larger number of smaller replicates of 50 or 25
seeds each (Bonner 1974). The kind of germination equipment can be selected according to the
type and amount of seeds being tested and it is acceptable providing it can give good control of
prescribed temperature, moisture, and light conditions.
Germination Energy
Germination Energy has been defined in more than one way (Ford - Robertson 1971): (1) The
percent, by number, of seeds in a given sample which germinate within a given period (defined as
the energy period) e.g. in 7 or 14 days, under optimum or stated conditions or (2) The percent, by
number, of seeds in a given sample which germinate up to the time of peak germination, generally
taken as the highest number of germinations in a 24 hour period.
Germination Value
The concept of Germination Value, as defined by Czabator (1962), aims to combine in a single
figure an expression of total germination at the end of the test period with an expression of
germination energy or speed of germination. Total germination is expressed as (final) Mean Daily
Germination (MDG), calculated as the cumulative percentage of full seed germination at the end
of the test, divided by the number of days from sowing to the end of the test. Speed of germination
is expressed as Peak Value, which is the maximum mean daily germination (cumulative
percentage of full seed germination divided by number of days elapsed since sowing date) reached
at any time during the period of the test. Germination Value (GV) can then be calculated from the
formula.
GV = (final) MDG × PV
Indirect Tests of Viability
The objects of quick viability tests are:
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To determine quickly the viability of seeds of species which normally germinate slowly or show
dormancy under the normal germination methods;
To determine the viability of samples which at the end of the germination test reveal a high
percentage of fresh ungerminated or hard seeds.
Only two methods, the topographical tetrazolium test and the embryo excision test were
previously accepted by the International Seed Testing Association as official methods for some
species of seeds. ISTA has recently accepted the X-ray method as a valid alternative to the
cutting test for the detection of empty and insect-damaged seeds. The following tests can be
applied depending on the circumstances:
Cutting test: The simplest viability testing method is direct eye inspection of seeds which have
been cut open with a knife or scalpel. If the endosperm is of normal colour with a well developed
embryo, the seed has a good chance of germinating. This test is not very reliable. Seeds with
milky, unfirm, mouldy, decayed, shrivelled or rancid-smelling embryos and abortive seeds that
have no embryo can be judged as non-viable without much difficulty (Bonner 1974).
Topographical tetrazolium test: The tetrazolium method is only one of a number of biochemical
tests which have been developed for seed testing.
Excised embryo test: By this method, the seeds are soaked for 1 – 4 days and the embryos are
then excised from the seeds and placed on moist filter paper or blotter discs in petri dishes. The
tests are placed in the light at a constant temperature of 20°C. The condition of the embryos is
examined daily. Depending upon the species and lot differences, the tests can be terminated after
only a few days, up to a maximum of 14 days, or as soon as distinct differentiation into viable
and non-viable embryos can be made.
Radiographic methods: The X-ray method permits the detection of empty seeds, mechanical
damage and abnormally developed internal seed structures, measurement of the thickness of the
seed coat and assessment of the seed viability when combined with a contrast agent.
Hydrogen peroxide: Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) has a stimulating effect on seed germination and
has been used in a rapid test for germination of several conifers in the western USA (Bonner
1974). Seeds are soaked overnight in 1% H2O2. The seed coat is then cut open to expose the
radicle tip and the seeds put back into 1% H2O2 in the dark at alternating temperatures (20° and
30°C). Counting and refreshment of H2O2 is done after 3 or 4 days and final assessment after 7
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or 8 days. Radicle growth of 5 mm or more is scored “evident”, 0 – 5 mm “slight” and no growth
means a nonviable or empty seed (Danielson 1972 cited by Bonner 1974).
Testing Moisture Content
The calculation of moisture content should be made on a wet weight or fresh weight basis.

e.g. (1) If initial wet weight of a seed lot = 50 kg and the MC (wet weight basis), determined by oven-drying
a sample, is 25%, the oven-dry weight = 75% of wet weight = 37.5 kg.

(2) If a period of drying reduces the wet weight to 46.5 kg, the new

MC

(3) If it is desired to reduce the MC (wet weight basis) to 10%, then desired oven-dry weight will be 90%
of new wet weight and the seed lot must be further dried until its wet weight

4.6. Pre sowing treatments

Seeds of many species do not germinate well unless they are exposed to certain conditions. This
state of not germinating unless the required conditions are met is called dormancy. In the natural
environment the conditions may be exposure to fire or being eaten by animals. When seeds are
eaten they are exposed to the hydrochloric acid in the stomach of the animal, and this breaks the
dormancy without damaging the seed. Similar methods are used by man to treat seeds and break
the dormancy of seeds he wishes to germinate. There are several methods of pre-treating tree seeds,
but knowledge of a few simple techniques is sufficient to get reasonable germination of almost all
species.
For pre-treatment purposes, seeds can be divided into five groups.
Group 1: Seeds requiring hot water treatment
This group includes most leguminous trees with pods and more-or-less flat seeds with a hard seed
coat. Normally, such seeds germinate faster and better if treated with hot water. The procedure is
as follows. Heat some water to near boiling point and then take it off the fire. Pour the hot water
over the seed in another pot and leave the seed to soak for about 24 hours.
Group 2: Small light seeds with no need for pre-treatment
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Many important species have small, dry seed, some of which can be stored for at least a few
months without losing viability. Examples are Eucalyptus spp., Casuarina spp., Cupressus
lusitanica, Iacaranda mimosifolia, Juniperus procera, Pinus spp., and Psidium guajava. Other
species also have small, dry seeds which do not require treatment but they cannot be stored for
long. For these species the best germination is obtained from fresh seed. Examples are Grevillea
robusta and Markhamia lutea.
Group 3: Large seeds with wings which should be removed before sowing
Species with large winged seeds normally do not require treatment, but removal of the wings
makes the seed easier to handle and speeds up the penetration of water after sowing. Combretum
fruit should be opened and the fleshy seed sown immediately.
Group 4: Medium-sized or large seeds with no need for pre-treatment
This group includes many seeds with a high oil content, e.g. Croton spp. and Vitex spp. Some of
these seeds are surrounded by fruit pulp, which should preferably be washed away before drying
or sowing the seed. Seeds of Calodendrum capense should be floated in water before sowing to
separate the floating non-viable seed from the sinking good seeds. Examples of species are Afzelia
quanzensis, Albizia spp., Azadirachta indica, Bauhinia purpurea, Calodendrum capense,
Cordia spp., Croton spp., Dovyalis caffra, Eriobotrya japonica, Melia azedarach, Prunus
africanus, Schinus molle, Sesbania spp.
Group 5: Large seeds with hard seed coats which require cracking
Some seeds which have a very hard seed coat could be treated mechanically to break the seed coat
and allow water to penetrate inside the seed. Cracking the seed coat must, however, be done with
great care in order not to damage the seed. This type of seed can normally be stored. Examples of
species are Adansonia digitata, Podocarpus spp. and Ziziphus spp.
CHAPTER 5. NURSERY ESTABLISHMENT AND MANAGEMENT
5.1. Type of Forest Nursery
Nursery is an area where young plants can grow with special care and protection. It produces
seedlings for both afforestation and commercial purposes. Nurseries may be categorized on the
intended length of time a nursery is supposed to serve and scale of production. Some nurseries are
established to serve for few years while others are established to serve many years. Hence nurseries
may be called temporary and permanent nurseries depending on the number of seasons they
serve.
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1. Temporary nurseries
Temporary nurseries are small to medium in size, in which small numbers of plants are raised
during a few years only. They may be situated inside a large planting project area, so that
themselves keep distance of planting sites as short as possible, to allow planting workers carry
seedlings the planting site. This minimizes damage of the seedlings during long transportation.
Methods of raising plants are the simplest possible, so that a minimum supervision is needed, and
temporary workers can do the work. But because of the low level of supervision the quality of
seedlings often low. Many Ethiopian peasant nurseries are examples of temporary nurseries.
Sometimes they are called satellite or flying nurseries. They may be operating for a limited
numbers of years only, but they satisfy a number of people as plants are produced for the immediate
use in the neighborhood. Because of their low capital investment, low transportation cost, they are
affordable to establish. Moreover there is no ownership problem. The disadvantage of these
nurseries is the high cost per plant, because clearing and fencing of sites is only for few years’
service. It is not always easy to find suitable site.
2. Permanent nurseries
Permanent nurseries are usually large centrally located nurseries which produce several hundred
thousands or millions of seedlings each year. Usually they have permanent workers including a
trained foremen or forester. Those nurseries can use rather sophisticated methods of raising
seedlings, and have better control over soil mixture, shading and watering than temporary
nurseries. Their establishment cost is high. Often the distance for the nursery to a plantation is
long, requiring lorry or tractor for transport of seedlings. This might cause seedling damage if
proper handling is not employed. Many of the government and community nurseries are usually
permanent. Nurseries could also be categorized by their ownership. They may be owned privately
by individuals or could be either community or government. In such case, they may be called as
private nurseries, community nurseries or government nurseries. In Ethiopia many large nurseries
are government nurseries.
5.2. Planning of Forest Nursery
5.1.1. Selection of a nursery site
Choosing the best possible site based preliminary survey of potential areas precedes establishment
on a new nursery. The use of available maps may facilitate identification of sites. The selection of
a site for a nursery should be done with considerable care and thought. Once the objectives have
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been set and the potential nursery sites identified, it should be examined systematically and an
objective evaluation made of their respective merits. When selecting nursery sites we have to
consider two important factors, these are factors important for seedling growth and nursery
management. These factors can help avoid major mistakes in choosing the site.
1. Ecological factors
Climate: a mild climate with longer growing season and an even distribution of rainfall is the most
desirable. The site has to be similar to the majority of the planting sites in altitude, rainfall regimes
and temperatures. Areas with extremes of temperature, areas subject to wind, hail or ice storms
should be avoided.
Topography: land for efficient and economic operation should be relatively level and without
large stones and rocks. Valley bottoms, which are subjected to water logging and frost pockets,
should be avoided. Sites where flooding occurs at any time of the year are totally out of
consideration.
Soil: If only potted seedlings are produced the native soil is not an important site factor. They can
be artificially blended. It is an advantage if these materials are available within a short distance
from the nursery as it could be very expensive to transport them from long distances. Where mainly
bare rooted seedlings are produced, soil should have favorable properties (such as soil texture,
depth, and friability). In all cases, clay soils with high shrink-swell capacity must be avoided. Bare
root seedlings produced best when grown on sandy or sandy loam soil. They do not readily
compact as do clay soils, excellent drainage, fewer root rot problems, less damage to the roots
during lifting, water more readily available to plant roots and suitability for using heavy
mechanical equipment. The optimum soil pH between 5 and 7.2. Soils with pH greater than 7.2
should be avoided because it favors root rot growth and it is difficult and costly to lower their PH.
Water: the availability of water throughout the year is important site selection criterion. It is best
to locate a site where there is access to a dependable supply of quality water. Sources of water may
be springs and streams, rivers, and ponds, wells….).
2. Economic Factors
Land: A site large enough to allow the yearly production of seedlings should be available. Make
sure traditional rights to use the land for fuel wood, grazing… do not interfere. Land, which is
claimed, by many groups or individuals should be avoided, it should be secured. For private land
and water rights, clear lease agreements have to be made.
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Labor: The availability of enough number of people who are willing to work during work peaks
in the seedlings production is one important factor.
3. Sociological factors
Many sociological factors influence the development of the nursery as they influence many other
segments of the economy. Increased population, wealth and mode of life of the people influences
the acceptance of the products.
4. Biological factors
The presence of serious insect, disease or weed pests should be investigated. Therefore, prior to
selecting the site, all the factors mentioned above should be considered and evaluated. Advice from
specialists in the area of: soil science, horticulture, entomologist, water resources and associated
areas should be solicited and evaluated.
5.2.2. Nursery layout
The nursery should, if possible square shaped to minimize the boundary lines which have to be
fenced, and to keep the distance between any two places in the nursery at a minimum. If not,
rectangular shape is convenient. For smaller nurseries, a rectangular shape with blocks splited
along the longer side of the nursery beds may be economical and convenient.

5.3. Preparation of nursery site

Fell all the trees on the site and to a distance of about 10m around the proposed boundary, as these
trees might interfere with future operations. Remove any stumps and termite mounds and big
stones. Plough the area thoroughly and remove all roots and large stones. Peg out location of the
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blocks and roads. Level each block, using a leveling. Minor irregularities can be corrected by
adding small of topsoil over the block as necessary or corrected by bringing in topsoil from a
nearby area to raise lower part of the block. If a lot of leveling is needed, it is best to scrape off the
topsoil, level the subsoil and re-spread the topsoil over the area to retain as far as possible the
natural drainage characteristics of the area.
5.3.1. Soil and bed preparation
Seedbeds should be 1m wide to reach the center of the bed from either side of the bed. They can
be of any length, but usually not longer than 20 m. It is preferable if they are the same lengths for
easy of estimation of the area required for all necessary operations. Usually 1 m paths are left in
between the beds. Soil used in seedbeds should be coarse in texture for good root penetration of
the germinating seed and easy lifting. The fertility of the soil is not as important as the seedling is
dependent on the food stored in the seed for the short period it stays in the seedbed. The application
of humus in the soil improves its water-holding capacity. The humus can be added in the form of
forest soil or compost. In humid lowlands where damping-off may be a problem, kind of washed
sand is usually free from damping off fungi is needed. Storage beds with drainage layer: In
nurseries where drainage is poor, an area 1m in width and some length can be dug down to about
8 cm depth. A 5cm thick layer of small stones (less than 3 cm in size) is placed in the bottom. A
3cm layer of rough forest soil is leveled on top of the gravel layer. The filled pots are stacked on
top on the forest soil layer. A heavy clayey soil must be avoided. The surface of the seedbed must
be soft, fine, smooth soil. It can be prepared by mixing forest soil or humus into sand. Construction
of the seedbed should be prepared about one month before sowing to allow the soil settles naturally
over that period and weeds germinate and weeded out. The surface is then leveled again.
5.3.2. Type of seedling
There are two types of seedlings depending on the media of growth for seedlings. These are bare
rooted and potted seedlings.
Bare- Rooted Seedlings
Bare- Rooted Seedlings are seedlings directly sown on the nursery beds without the need for the
containers such as polythene tubes. They are easy and cheap to raise in the nurseries. The main
advantage of bare rooted seedlings is that they are easy to transport and handle in the field as they
are not accompanied by a heavy ball of soil. Bare rooted seedling can be stored in the field for
very short period of time only because their root surface are not bound to soil with moisture to
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protect seedlings from desiccation. The greatest disadvantage of bare rooted seedlings is their
unreliability.
Potted seedlings
Potted seedlings are seedlings grown in containers such as polythene (plastic) tubes. They are more
expensive to rise in the nursery as potting material of right amount and size tube type has to be
bought from further distances. The activities related to growing potted seedlings such as preparing
soil mixture, filling and stacking of pots is rather time-consuming. The main disadvantage of
potted seedlings is the weight and volume of the pots, which makes it very difficult to handle.
During transportation truck can carry only a limited amount of seedlings because of the heavy
weight of single pot saturated with water. Transportation of potted seedlings to remote areas is one
of the bottlenecks in tree planting programmers. There are many different methods of raising
potted seedlings. Out of them, the polythene pot method has become very wide spread and by far
the most important method in Ethiopia and elsewhere in Africa during the last 20 years. Plastic
pots a cheap, light in weight and easy to handle.
5.3.3. Seed sowing techniques and transplanting
1. Broadcast sowing on to seedbed
This is nowadays the most common method of sowing onto seedbeds. It is used to sowing seeds
of all sizes, but is best suited to sowing of small seeds. The seedbed shall be leveled with a rake
and/or leveling board during preparation for sowing. The bed should be well watered the day
before sowing. The bed moisture is usually checked in the morning of the day of sowing to ensure
that the correct moisture condition is maintained. The seeds are then broadcast sown as evenly as
possible, either from hand or from a stiff paper packet.
2. Drill method
This method has been practiced mainly with species having larger seeds, but also with smaller
seeds such as pines when very even distribution of seeds is desired in sowing. The drill method
has been practiced on traditional beds where seeds have been sown directly. The plants are later
thinned so that the distance between the plants is 5-10 cm.
3. Direct sowing onto the polythene tubes
Direct sowing onto pots has become increasingly popular. It eliminates the time consuming
operation of transplanting which causes slowed growth and even seedling mortality. Pines,
Eucalyptus and other germinating seeds are commonly sown onto pots. The seeds are placed in
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the middle of the pot, pressed down and covered with soil so that the covering layer is about the
thickness of the seed. For large seeds, a hole is first pressed in to the soil by a pricking stick. Then
the seed is put into it and then covered. Again it is important to see that no air pockets are left
round the seed.
Transplanting: Any plant that is growing in the seedbed is called seedlings. A plant, which is
raised in a traditional bed where it was grown directly as well as from direct sowing into pot are
also called seedlings. If a seedling is lifted from its bed and planted to another bed or pot in the
nursery it is thereafter called “transplant”. Transplanting is a crucial stage in the life of a plant. It
always causes a shock to the seedling, even when carefully done and bad transplanting easily kills
the seedling.
Soil potting mixtures: If seedlings are raised in pots, soil ingredients used for filling of pots are
brought from outside the nursery. Each nursery should find out the best possible potting soil using
materials within reasonable distance from the nursery. The qualities, which make up good nursery
soil are:
 Good drainage
 Satisfactory contents of essential nutrients.
 Good organic matter content to retain moisture.
 Sufficient adhesion to form a soil cylinder (the soil stays in the pot without falling through
the bottom)
 Correct acidity and Mycorrhiza inoculated (for pines).
Not many soils have all these qualities; humus rich forest topsoil has more of these desirable
characteristics than other soils. This kind of best local soil, which is easily available in large
amount, is called basic soil. It forms the basis for the potting mixture. Basic soil needs to be forest
soil, humus rich, or agricultural soil. Adding some of the following can modify the basic soil
Gravel or sand: These improve drainage and give good root penetration.
Manure or compost: this provides organic matter to improve moisture-holding capacity. It also
provides nutrients.
Clay: Helps the soil bound round the roots and form soil cylinder (improve adhesion). It also
improves moisture and nutrient holding capacities to some extent.
Fertilizers: these provide essential nutrients.
5.3.4. Care, protection and conditioning of seedlings
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Nursery bed shades
Seedlings need protection from drought, cold wind, heavy rain and burning sunshine. For these
reasons, shades must be provided especially when the seedlings are young. On the seedbeds,
germinating seeds and tiny seedlings need protection against both sun and heavy rains. After
transplanting, taller seedlings need protection mainly against sun only. Full and dense shade on
seedbeds gives best results with most species. If the seedbed is covered with grass, the shades are
not put on the bed until the time when the grass is removed. The grass is removed after germination
has started. Too low shades make watering difficult. Depending on the direction of aspect, the
shade facing the strongest sunshine is usually shorter than the one facing relatively less baking
sun.
Orientation of shades: In order to obtain the maximum effect of the shade, the beds should be
oriented east to west. During the period from April to September, when the sun is north of the
equator, the shades should be sloping down to the north. During the rest of the year, which is the
main nursery period with most species in Ethiopia, the shades should slope down towards the
south; the sun is at its hottest from 10 am to 2 pm for which reason shades should be built so that
they join tightly together when set on their supporting frames.
If the sun is very strong in the morning and late afternoon, one extra section of the shades can be
erected vertically to protect the plants from against the rays of the sun. Sloping shades have an
advantage over horizontal shades in cases that sowing and transplanting take place during the time
of the year when there are rain showers. Pools of rainwater are easily formed on top of horizontal
shades, and when these begin to leak, they cause some erosion in the bed below washing away
both seedlings and soil. The problem becomes serious if hail occurs.
Seedbeds
It is important that the seedbed is kept constantly moist down to a minimum of 5-6 cm depth. The
bed must not be allowed to get dry as drying would slow down germination and kill germinating
seeds. Watering should be done frequently, at least twice a day, in small quantities. The frequency
and amount of watering depend on the rate at which water is absorbed by the roots and the water
holding capacity of the soil. The rate of absorption depends on species, size of seedling, density of
seedling, and on weather conditions. For these reasons, it is impossible to establish very general
rules about watering. Every nursery manager should find best possible watering regime
himself/herself.
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Control of Birds, Rodents and pests
The nursery site should be controlled from: Birds and mice, Red ants, Grasshoppers, Cutworms,
and Damping-off. Damping-off is a disease of young seedlings caused by a number of soil born
fungi (such as fusarium, pythium, Rhizoctonia etc) altogether there are about 30 species of fungi.
Damping off can be divided into two.
1. Post emergence damping off: decay occurs in the root and the stem. Tissue of the root collar
turn dark in color causing seedlings to fall over with their leaves still green and die.
2. Pre-emergence damping off: Fungi, which live in, the soil attack seeds immediately after
germination. They destroy the emerging radical (primary root). This type of damping-off is
difficult to identify. Failure of seedlings to emerge can be attributed to other reasons such as quality
of seed. Some scientists do not regard this pre-emergence damping-off at all.
Hosts: Damping-off is troublesome with pine seedlings. There are some differences in
susceptibility between different pine species. It also attacks other species such as Eucalyptus. With
pine seedlings the risk if disease is usually high.
Control: Damping-off is favored high humidity, damp soil surface and heavy clay soils, cloud
weather, too heavy shade, dense stands of seedlings which reduce evaporation, high content of
organic matter, high levels of nitrogen, alkaline soils (pH 6 or above). Warm weather encourages
its spread. The risk of damping-off is especially high when sowing done during rains. Damping-
off can be controlled by paying due attention to proper cultural practices and by using certain
chemicals.
Cultural practices: The most effective preventive measures are avoiding of excessive watering
and maintain of good aeration in seedbeds. Correct density of sowing is important as aeration in
dense patches of seedlings is much reduced. Too heavy shading must be avoided. During long
periods of cloudy weather, it is advisable to remove the shades entirely.
Soil sterilization: helps in controlling pre-emergence damping-off. However, it is much less
effective in controlling post-emergence damping-off.
1. Cooking the soil with some water for some minutes can treat small quantities of seedbed soil.
2. Bigger amount of soil can be treated with formaldehydes (formal). Commercial (40%)
formaldehyde is applied to the bed at the rate of 80 cc per 5-liter of water per one square meter.
Formaldehyde should be applied 7 to 10 days before sowing to avoid soil damage to seed.
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3. Methyl bromide is widely used for soil steralization in Zambia and other countries. Both
formaldehyde and methyl bromide are dangerous chemicals. Particularly the latter which is totally
odorless is very severely dangerous. All safety precautions must be observed in using these
chemicals. Both formaldehyde and methyl bromide also kill weed seeds and nematodes.
Soil Fertility and Application of Fertilizers
Most soil fertility are Nitrogen (N): for good root growth; Phosphorus (P) development of root and
keep leaf color green; Potassium (K). Fertilizers can be applied by mixing into soil mixture before
filling pots top dressing and Application of liquid fertilizer.
Cultivation and weeding
Cultivation (working of the soil surface): is the technique of maintaining good physical
condition of the soil in pots and beds during the growing season.
Weeding: A weed is a plant growing where it is not wanted. Weeds compete with plants for water
and soil nutrients. They may also harbor insects or diseases. Therefore, weed competition must be
eliminated. The principal methods of weed control are manual and chemical. Weed-killing
chemicals are called herbicides. Non-selective herbicides are toxic to all kinds of plants. They are
used for weed control on paths, along fence lines and around buildings and storage grounds.
Selective herbicides destroy certain species but cause little or no injury to others.
Mulching
Mulching may be defined as mainly artificial modification of the soil surface. It can be done in
many ways, such as mulching by ordinary cultivation and covering of grass, leaves straw sawdust,
sand etc. The primary purpose of mulching is to conserve soil moisture by lowering soil
temperature and by physically blocking the loss of water. In areas where, watering is necessary
throughout the year, mulching helps to reduce both the frequency of watering and the amount of
water needed. In cold areas, a wet layer of grass covering lowers soil temperature too much and
growth of seedlings will slow down.
Grass mulching of Sowings: In Ethiopian nurseries sown seeds both in seedbeds and in pots are
covered with a layer of grass. The reason is to prevent the soil surface and seeds from being washed
aside in watering, as local watering cans have very rough sprinklers and the drop size is large. The
grass mulch has got some disadvantages. It may bring into pots or beds weed seeds and insects.
Introduce of fine-hose watering cans could bring about considerable improvements in nursery
techniques in Ethiopia.
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5.3. 5. Quality control, dispatch and transport of seedlings
Root Pruning: Root pruning involves cutting of the taproot, in some cases also of lateral roots, to
encourage the development of fibrous root system. This kind of root system gives the seedlings
the best possible start in plantation. Root pruning also controls depth of root penetration and makes
lifting of seedlings easier and less harmful. If root pruning is not done, tap-rooted species in pots
send their roots down deep into the soil. The result may be very vigorous growth compared with
root-pruned neighbors.
Preparation for planting out: Before the seedlings can be delivered for planting in the field, some
steps are still required such as hardening-off, grading, packing and transport.
Hardening-off: is the process of gradually acclimatizing indoor-sown plants to outdoor
conditions
Grading: decreasing waste of the sowing material and cutting down sharply on the labor needed
to tend the plantings.
Packing seedlings: containerized seedling.
Transporting: bring from nursery site to planting site.
5.4. Raising Plants through Vegetative Propagation
Vegetative propagation is an asexual method of plant reproduction that occurs in its leaves, roots
and stem without involving any reproductive organ. This can occur through fragmentation and
regeneration of specific vegetative parts of plants.
Natural Vegetative Propagation
This occurs when plants grow and develop naturally without any human interference. Natural
vegetative propagation can be enabled by the development of adventitious roots. Thus, new plants
may emerge from the roots, stem and leaves of the parent plant. The vegetative plant structures
arising from the stem are known as rhizomes, bulbs, runners, tubers, etc.
Artificial Vegetative Propagation
This is a type of vegetative reproduction carried out by humans in the fields and laboratories. The
most common types of vegetative reproduction occurring artificially include:
Cutting: In this, a part of a plant, specifically a stem or leaf is cut and planted in the soil. These
cuttings are sometimes treated with hormones to induce root development. The new plant is formed
from the adventitious roots developing from the cutting.
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Grafting: In this, the cutting from some other plant is attached to the stem of a plant rooted in the
ground. The tissues of the graft become integrated with the tissues of the rooted plant and develop
as a single plant over time.
Layering: In this, the stem of the plant is bent to the ground and covered with soil. Adventitious
roots emerge from the plant parts covered with the soil. This attached stem with developing roots
is known as a layer.
Tissue Culture: In this, the plant cells from different parts of a plant are cultured in the laboratory
to develop a new plant. This technique is helpful in increasing the number of rare and endangered
plant species that are unable to grow under natural conditions.
5.5. Management of Forest Nursery
Record keeping in the nursery: With the aim to ensure the complete stand history of certain
plantation; it is indispensable to note all operation for raising seedlings. This includes daily
operation, labour management, cost etc. A careful registration will also help to establish the most
appropriate production data for each species. Which are:
 Quantity of seeds needed
 Types of seedling: potted, bare rooted, stumps, cuttings
 ideal size of seedling for plantation
 Production specification such as shading intensity, watering, fertilizing
 Preparation of nursery calendar and others
I) Nursery registration form: the recording is done on individual nursery bed basis.
Example registration form for the follow up of all activities of a certain species:
1. Species
2. Provenance
3. Date of seed collection
4. Reception date of seeds
5. Storing condition
6. Method of seed pretreatment
7. Density of sowing
8. Quantity seed per sq. m –kg
9. Area seed bed ---sq. m
10. Protective measures taken
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11. Registration number of seed bed
12. Responsible person
13. Expected number of seedlings per sq. and in total
14. Seedling description for planting
15. Destination of seedling
16. Transportation specification (date, seedling transported, seedlings eliminated) and so on
CHAPTER 6. PLANTATION ESTABLISHMENT AND MANAGEMENT
6.1. Why Plantation Forestry?
Planted forests are managed at scales large and small and for a variety of objectives,
including restoration of amenity, environmental protection, biodiversity, carbon sequestration, and
wood and non-wood product generation. Plantation forests can provide most goods and services
that are provided by natural forests. These include timber, non-timber forest products, protection
of clean water and clean air, soil erosion control, biodiversity, esthetics, carbon sequestration, and
climate control.
Employment, roads, and water supply infrastructures were positively impacted by large-scale
plantation forestry. Landholding status and the spatial location of rural communities are the
principal determinants influencing benefit appropriation. When natural ecosystems are substituted
by large- scale tree plantations they usually result in negative environmental and social impacts:
decrease in water production, modifications in the structure and composition of soils, alteration in
the abundance and richness of flora and fauna, encroachment on indigenous.
6.2. Social and Economic Factors in Plantation Development
Factors that influence forests and forestry are demographic changes, the pace of economic and
social development, political and institutional evolution, environmental changes and developments
in science and technology. Economic factors are availability of land at reasonable costs, high
plantation yields, well-developed plantation practices, a skilled labour force, strong research
backing, the existence of a viable market, and a strong supporting infrastructure to ensure cost-
effective delivery to markets.
6.2.1. Protective forestry
If a forest is owned for the purpose of protecting the watershed from fire, erosion, or visual
buffering, then it is considered a protection forest. Forests and trees outside forests play a
protective role, for instance in ecosystem conservation, in maintaining clean water, and in reducing
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the risks of impacts of floods, avalanches, erosion and drought. Protective functions can be local
or global and include:
• Influence on climate.
• Protection from wind erosion.
• Coastal protection.
• Protection from avalanches.
• Air-pollution filters.
• Protecting water resources.
6.2.2. Production forestry
If a forest is owned with the goal of producing forest products and ancillary products such as
grazing fodder or greenery is called a production forest. A forest product is any material derived
from forestry for direct consumption or commercial use, such as lumber, paper,
or fodder for livestock. Wood, by far the dominant product of forests, is used for many purposes,
such as wood fuel (e.g. in form of firewood or charcoal) or the finished structural materials used
for the construction of buildings, or as a raw material, in the form of wood pulp, that is used in the
production of paper. All other non-wood products derived from forest resources, comprising a
broad variety of other forest products, are collectively described as non-timber forest
products (NTFP). Non-timber forest products are viewed to have fewer negative effects on forest
ecosystem when providing income sources for local community.
6.2.3. Choice of species and site matching
When the best possible information has been collected on the characteristics of the site to be
planted, the next step is the selection of the tree or shrub species to plant. The aim is to choose
species which are suited to the site, will remain healthy throughout the anticipated rotation, will
produce acceptable growth and yield, and will meet the objectives of the plantation (fuelwood
production, protection, etc.). The choice of a tree species depends on whether both productive and
ecological advantages can be achieved in the same system, and in some cases one function, either
productive or environmental, may be desired. Within a forest landscape, the preferred choice for
restoration would be natural regeneration. To ensure that trees will flourish, species choice must
match the sites and soil characteristics. Several variables need to be considered when scouting for
locations to plant tree seedlings. Soil conditions along with moisture availability, slope, aspect and
light availability are among the conditions to factor into the decision making process.
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The selection of tree or shrub species through the use of analogous climates is important as a first
step; but this must be amplified by an evaluation of localized factors which can be more important
(for example, soil, slope, and biotic factors). However, the ability to match closely a planting site
and a natural habitat may not preclude the need for species trials, since climatological or ecological
matching may not reveal the adaptability of a species. It cannot be emphasized too strongly that,
without such trials, the choice of tree or shrub species is (in most cases) a risky business. Since
planting in arid environments is normally an expensive undertaking, large-scale failures which
result from the wrong choice of species or failure to test them can prove costly.
6.2.4. Pros and cons of exotic vs. indigenous species
Growing exotic plants can be rewarding because of their vibrant flowers and unique shapes, but
the plants will not thrive without hard work and consistent care. Most exotic plants require constant
attention to thrive, including maintaining a perfect environmental balance of the plants'
temperature, light and humidity. They also require the grower to research the plant to ensure it is
being properly fed and cared for. A benefit of growing exotic plants is that they often offer the
most colorful blooms and unusual shapes of the plant world.
A disadvantage of growing exotic plants is that each species has different growing requirements,
requiring plenty of research whether a gardener plans to grow one or several different species.
Orchids, for example, require an environment which simulates their natural environment to a large
degree. Those native to the tropics and high altitudes, for example, prefer a high humidity of 80 to
90 percent, and orchids from warm climates need steady moisture and plenty of circulating air.
6.3. Plantation Establishment
6.3.1. Site reconnaissance
The more information there is available about the site conditions in the area being considered for
tree and shrub planting, the better are the chances of selecting the tree and shrub species best suited
to the area. Information most commonly included in site reconnaissance is:
Climate - temperature, rainfall (amount and distribution), relative humidity, and wind.
Soil - depth of soil and its capacity to retain moisture, texture, structure, parent material, pH, degree
of compaction, and drainage.
Topography - important for its modifying effects on both climate and soil.
Vegetation - composition and ecological characteristics of natural and (when present) introduced
vegetation.
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Other biotic factors - past history and present land use influences on the site, including fire,
domestic livestock and wild animals, insects and diseases.
Water-table levels - a knowledge of the depth and variation of the water-table levels in the wet
and dry seasons is valuable and can be crucial in determining the tree and shrub species that can
be grown. Water-table levels can be estimated from observations in wells or by borings made for
this purpose.
Availability of supplementary water sources - ponds, lakes, streams, and other water sources.
Distance from nursery.
Apart from the above biophysical information, socio-economic factors also play an important role.
• The availability of labour.
• Motivation of the local population.
• The distance of the forest plantation to the market and consumer centers.
• Land ownership and tenure.
6.3.2. Selection of planting site
Often, the choice of the planting site is limited to lands which are not suited for agriculture or
livestock production; when this is the case, the site reconnaissance information gains importance.
The boundaries of the planting site, once the area has been chosen, should be marked with
boundary posts. When there is a danger of trespassing and damage by grazing animals, a boundary
fence should be established. Fencing is costly and, therefore, should only be built when other
means of protection are not effective. Once a forest plantation is well established and the trees are
sufficiently tall, the fences can be removed and reused at another planting site.
6.3.3. Site preparation
Ground preparation includes soil cultivation, draining of poorly drained soils and preparation of
mechanical soil structures such as terraces and special planting pits. On many sites, only ground
preparation makes forestation possible. The main objectives of ground preparation
a) To make the area more accessible for planting and to enhance the rapid establishments of the
young seedlings by improving the physical structure of the soil.
 Loosens compacted surface or sub soil
 Hard impervious layers are shuttered
 Drainage properties of the soil will be improved
 Permeability and, aeration will be improved.
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b) Disturbance of the area to reduce the weed cover
c) On erosion-prone areas, physical structures to prevent or reduce surface runoff are constructed.
d) Leveling and removal of obstructions that impede the movement of machines which could be
used in post planting maintenance.
Similar to vegetation removal ground preparation can also be done as strip or clean cultivation.
Strip cultivation is made on a narrow band of 1 to 2m along the planting line. In relatively goods
sites where moisture and nutrient are not seriously limiting factors and for species that are not very
sensitive for competition strip cultivation is sufficient. It is also the recommended method for areas
with high risk of erosion. Clean cultivation is done when complete weeding is necessary for the
survival of the species. It will be more expensive than strip cultivation. Soil cultivation may
involve three different operations: Pioneer ploughing, Pre-planting harrowing and sub-soiling.
Spacing: refers to the distance between trees during planting. Therefore, it is directly related to
the number of trees per hectare to be established. It affects the growth rate, time to canopy closure,
tree sizes and yield, and the cost of a plantation establishment and maintenance. This indicates that
the decision on what spacing to use and also what planting pattern to employ will have far-reaching
effects in plantation development and management. As a matter of fact, it is one of the important
decisions during plantation establishment as it is also directly related to the cost of nursery
management.
Factors affecting spacing: The decision on optimum spacing is a compromise between several
factors. These factors are related to silvicultural management and financial requirements.
Site: site quality determines the type of spacing to be used. Wider spacing is often recommended
for poorer site.
Species: Slower growing species need to be planted at close spacing to shorten the time of canopy
closure. Species, which tend to have poor form or large branches in open conditions (most broad-
leaved) need to be planted closely if stem quality is important or desirable. Light-demanding
species require wider spacing than shade tolerant species.
Management objectives: The objective of the plantation, which dictates the type of product
sought greatly, influences the decision on optimum spacing. If smaller sized products like
firewood, poles & pulpwood are the production objective quantity of production is the main
interest; closer spacing will be appropriate. For large sized products wood production, wider initial
planting is recommended to increase the proportion of large sized trees.
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Economic and financial aspects: If there is a demand for small sized products, it may be
economically justifiable to establish at denser stocking and carryout thinning as appropriate age.
It will be beneficial by yielding an intermediate return and also improving the quality of wood. On
the other hand, denser stocking could increase establishment cost considerably.
6.3.4. Planting
Planting is the most common method of large-scale plantation establishment. Planting allows for
uniform distribution of trees over the plantation area and efficient utilization of the sties potential.
Planting also gives a higher survival rate as compared to direct sowing and the regular planting
pattern facilitates maintenance operation. The major disadvantage of planting is the high cost of
nursery establishment and planting operation.
Time of planting: It is very essential that the seedlings are planted as early as possible in the rains
season; therefore they will use the available moisture in the major rainfall period efficiently and
established very well to withstand the following dry seasons. At least two wet months are required
for successful establishment of the seedlings after planting. In areas where rainfall is low and
erratic we have to be cautious in determining the right time of planting. Planting time during the
day depends on the prevailing weather condition.
Planting Techniques:
Slit Notch planting: This is used only for bare-rooted seedlings.
Hole (pit) planting: This technique is used for container grown or ball-rooted seedlings
Dibble planting: This technique is used for small seedlings with small root system.
Mechanical Planting: power driven borers can also be used to prepare planting holes
6.3.5. Direct sowing
In direct sowing the seeds of the desirable species are directly sown in to the planting field.
Therefore, it doesn’t involve raising seedling in nurseries thereby avoiding the cost of nursery
management and seedling transport during establishment. The method will be more successful and
preferable for some species to be established under specific conditions. Species with abundant seed
production and easily available. Species with reasonably good germination rate under field
conditions. Usually species with large seeds give good results. Species that naturally withstand
competition and have an early fast growth and hence outgrow competing vegetation very soon. If
the site is free of seriously harsh conditions like aridity, soil degradation or not covered with highly
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competitive vegetation. Species difficult to grow in nurseries or with a long tap root at an early
stage. If plantation site is very inaccessible for planting operation.
6.4. Maintenance of Plantations
6.4.1. Fertilizer at and after planting
Adding slow release fertilizer of any type at planting has never been associated with improved or
reduced survival. There are only a few documented growth increases associated with fertilization
applications made at or soon after planting (Gilman et al. 2000). Response to fertilizer applications
at planting is most likely to occur in poor soils, and response is likely to be minimal. Application
of slow release fertilizer is not likely to hurt the plant provided it is applied according to the
directions on the product. On the other hand, adding soluble fertilizer to a newly installed plant
could burn roots if too much is applied. Burned roots will injure the plant and could kill it under
some circumstances.
6.4.2. Mulching, fencing and fire protection
Mulching refers to the practice of applying protective layer, usually dead vegetative materials such
as straw, hay, dried grasses, organic matter, on the soil surface around a seedling. Organic
mulching is better than other mulching material.
Fencing/hedges: Whenever practicable, fencing off the site could be an effective way of protecting
plantations from trespassers including the damage by grazing animals.
Fire Protection: Fire is one of the most hazardous damaging factors for young seedlings posing
the greatest risk for plantation in tropical areas. The important aspects of fire protection are;
 The control of outside fires from spreading in the plantation
 Prevention of fire from being ignited inside the plantation
 Taking rapid fire control measures to limit the damage once a fire is started
 Well-planned firebreaks between compartments and plantation boundary can prevent
outside fire from spreading in to the plantation site.
 The layout of firebreaks in the plantation must have been decided and made during the pre-
establishment operations.
6.4.3. Protection against diseases and insect pests
An effective way of protecting disease and pest attack is planting healthy seedling from the start.
It is also preferable to remove any unwanted vegetation in the plantation site if it is suspected to
be a host to a pathogenic agent or is already attacked by an insect pest. If there is a sign of attach
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on the seedlings pesticides can be applied to remove the pest and check its spread in the plantation.
Mixing a pesticide with the soil to be filled in during planting can prevent pests in the ground. Site
with very high termite population must be planted with the application of the appropriate chemical
powder on the soil to be filled.
6.4.4. Weeding and thinning
Weeding: weeding is a cultural operation that eliminates or suppresses undesirable vegetation
which, if no action were taken, would impair the growth of the plantation crop. This undesirable
vegetation competes with trees and shrubs for light, water, and nutrients; weeding increases the
availability of all or the most critical of these elements to the trees and shrubs.
Thinning: thinning of forest plantations, particularly those established for wood production, may
be required to obtain the desired spacing between the trees. In general, this spacing is a compromise
between a "wide" spacing to reduce planting costs and inter-tree competition in times of drought,
and a "close" spacing to attain early canopy closure, the suppression of weeds, the reduction of
weeding costs, and natural pruning of branches through shading.
6.4.5. Replacement planting
Whatever care and techniques has been practiced, there will always be some mortality after
planting. The death of seedling could result from one or some of the following causes.
 Deterioration in the condition of seedlings by mishandling during transporting and storage.
 Improper planting technique – is the most common cause shallow planting, inadequate farming
of the soil around the roots, exposed or bend roots, etc.
 Occurrence of bad weather after planting – like frost, very high temperature, drought, high
rainfall and flood, etc.
 Attack by insect pests & diseases
 Weed competition
 Animal damage
Whenever the amount of early mortality is unacceptably large we require another planting
operation called replacement planting. After the planting operation, preferably during the first
weeding operation, assessment is made to determine the proportion of dead plants. It is called a
survival count. It will facilitate the replacement planting operation if points of massive death, that
could cause very large gaps in the plantation, are marked by putting wooden stake. The
replacement planting is not necessarily done to fill all dead plants.
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6.4.6. Harvesting
For forest plantations that are established for purposes of wood production, trees and shrubs are
harvested once they attain the "optimum size" for the wood product wanted. From a biological
standpoint, trees and shrubs should not be cut until they have at least grown to the minimum size
required for production utilization. To determine the average annual growth rate of a forest
plantation at a point-in-time, the volume and age of the trees or shrubs must be estimated; then the
average annual growth (at the specified point-in-time) is determined by dividing the standing
volume by the corresponding age.