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ECOSYSTEM STRUCTURES & FUNCTIONS

CONTENTS

12. Types of Ecosystem

RENUKA GUPTA

Module 24: Types of Ecosystems

Objectives:

1. Basic classification of ecosystems.

2. Brief introduction to different types of terrestrial and aquatic
ecosystems including their location, climate, flora, fauna and other
physical characteristics.
3. A brief overview to the threats imposed to these ecosystems.

24.1 Introduction

The biosphere is an intricate net of carefully mixed life forms. Complex

interactions of many macro and microscopic species of plants and animals,
together with the rich arrays of symbiotic fungi and lichens, are the base of
every ecosystem, from forests to coral reefs and freshwater to soils. All
ecosystems are not only sources of rich biodiversity, but also extremely
productive areas, offering a lot of benefits to mankind. Ecosystem structure
includes the spatial distribution of species, their architecture (size, shape,
and pattern), organisation into communities or guilds, ecodiversity (multiple
indices), seasonal and long term patterns, relationship to soil and climate
characteristics and many other factors. Ecosystem function can be much
harder to study and involves questions of nutrient cycling, productivity,
decomposition, energy flow, water cycles, food webs, reproduction,
predation, demographics (increasers and decresers), resilience, stability, and
many other dynamic processes. All types of ecosystems fall into one of two
categories: terrestrial or aquatic. Terrestrial ecosystems are land based,
while aquatic are water based (Figure 1).

24.2 Terrestrial Ecosystems

The distribution of terrestrial ecosystems is primarily related to

precipitation and temperature. Terrestrial ecosystems can be divided,
mainly on the basis of the prevailing vegetation type, into three basic
categories: forest, grassland and desert.
24.2.1 Forest Ecosystem
Forests worldwide are known to be critically important habitats in terms
of the biological diversity they contain and in terms of the ecological
functions they serve. Forests are multi-functional: they provide an often
complex array of goods and services (CBD, 2001). Forest ecosystems cover
large parts of the terrestrial land surface and are major components of the
terrestrial carbon cycle. Trees, the main component of forest ecosystems,
contain the largest stock or absolute quantity of the living forest biomass.
The total forest biomass is about 677 petagram (Pg), and trees constitute
80% of the world’s biomass (Kindermann et al. 2008).

The forest is a complex and rich ecosystem as well as a valuable renewable

natural resource. Its direct offerings include forest biomass, timber and a
series of other forest products, storehouse of genetic material acting as
genetic reservoir for future improvements of agricultural production and the
most significant, along with the oceans, shelters of the planet’s wildlife. The
indirect offerings of forests are perhaps even more important for man and
include protection of drainage basins against erosion and the creation and
preservation of soil, regulation and stabilization of the water cycle, global
climate stabilization through binding and storing of atmospheric CO2,
regulation of the local climate through the increase of evapotranspiration
and, consequently, of humidity, and reduction of the temperature variations
amplitude, regulation of nutrients’ circulation in the ecosystems, regulation
of water and atmospheric air quality etc. Since the range of temperatures
that allow forest development is exceptionally wide, a series of forest types
succeed one another in different geographic latitudes. Forest ecosystems
correspond also to a wide range of humidity values, from dry to very humid
regions.

1. Tropical Rainforests

Tropical rainforests are restricted primarily to the equatorial zone between

latitudes 10°N and 10°S in Central and South America, Africa, Southeast Asia,
and some islands in the Caribbean Sea and Pacific Ocean. Climates where
tropical rain forests develop are always warm and receive at least 200 cm of
precipitation throughout the year, with no less than 10 cm during any single
month. Their soils are typically old and deeply weathered oxisols. Because
they are relatively devoid of humus and clay, they take on the reddish colour
of aluminium and iron oxides and retain nutrients poorly. In spite of the low
nutrient status of the soils, rain forest vegetation is dominated by a
continuous canopy of tall evergreen trees rising to 30–40 m. Tropical rain
forests are teeming with life and have increadible biological diversity. Nearly
90 percent of all non human primate species live in them. Tropical
rainforests are under intense pressure from logging and agriculture.
1. Temperate Decidous Forest

Temperate decidous forest is typical of the eastern half of the United States,
parts of south central and south eastern Canada, southern Africa, and many
areas of Europe and Asia. These areas generally receive 75 to 100 cm (30 to
60 inches) of relatively evenly distributed precipitation per year. The winters
are relatively mild, and plants are actively growing for about half the year.
Temperate deciduous forests have fewer tree species than tropical rain
forests. But the penetration of more sunlight supports a richer diversity of
plant life at ground level. Most of the temperate deciduous forests have been
heavily affected by human activity such as farming, periodic logging and
furthermore they are the major population centres. Some of these diverse
forests have been cleared and replaced with tree plantations consisting of
only one tree species.

Temperate Evergreen Forest

Temperate rainforests exist in the coastal areas of northern California,

Oregon, Washington, British Columbia, southern Alaska, New Zealand and
the southwest coast of Chile. They typically receive at least 130 cm (50
inches) of rain each year. Furthermore, rain occurs throughout the year and
the cool climate slows evaporation, so thing are generally damp. This
abundance of water, along with fertile soil and mild temperatures, results in
a lush growth of plants. In warm temperate climates near the Pacific coast in
north western North America, and in southern Chile, New Zealand, and
Tasmania, mild winters, heavy winter rains, and summer fog create
conditions that support extremely tall evergreen forests. In North America,
these forests are dominated toward the south by coast redwood (Sequoia
sempervirens) and toward the north by Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga spp.). In
contrast to rain forests in the tropics, temperate rain forests typically
support few species. Because of the rich resource of trees, at least half of the
original temperate rainforest has already been logged.

1. Tropical Dry Forests

Tropical dry forests are found in parts of Central and South America,
Australia, Africa, and Asia (particularly India and Myanmar). Many of the
tropical dry forests have a monsoon climate in which several months of
heavy rainfall are followed by extensive dry periods ranging from a few to as
many as eight months. Since the rainfall is highly seasonal, many of the
plants have special adaptations for enduring drought. Many of these forests
occur in areas of very high human population. Therefore, the harvesting of
wood for fuel and building materials has heavily affected these forests.

1. Taiga

Stretching in a broad belt centered at about 50°N in North America and

about 60°N in Europe and Asia lies the evergreen coniferous forests or the
boreal forest biome, often called taiga. In this subarctic climate, winters are
long, dry, and extremely cold, with sunlight available only 6–8 hours a day.
Summers are short, with mild to warm temperatures, and the sun typically
shines 19 hours a day. Most boreal forests are dominated by a few species of
coniferous (cone-bearing) evergreen trees such as spruce, fir, cedar,
hemlock, and pine that keep some of their narrow-pointed leaves (needles)
all year long. Human impact is less severe than with many other biomes
because population density is generally low in this region.

1. Tundra

The tundra is an extremely cold region that lacks trees and has a
permanently frozen subsurface soil. This frozen soil layer is known as
permafrost. The amount of precipitation is less than 25 cm (10 inches) per
year and the short summer is generally wet because the winter snows melt
in the spring and summer temperatures are usually less than 10°C (50°F).
Soils tend to be acidic because of their high organic matter content. Arctic
tundra is an expansive biome that has low productivity because it has a short
growing season. Plants hold their foliage for years. Most plants are dwarf,
prostrate woody shrubs, which grow low to the ground to gain protection
under the winter blanket of snow and ice. Tundra is essential for global
biodiversity, especially for migratory birds.
24.2.2 Grassland Ecosystem
Grassland ecosystems are ecologically and economically important, and
are of widespread occurrence. The potential distribution of grassland
ecosystems to a large extent is determined by climatic variables, principally
temperature and precipitation. Three factors including drought, fire, and
grazing by large ungulate herbivores, distinguish grasslands from other
ecosystem types. They are located in areas in which water availability is
below the requirement for the forest at some time during the year but is
sufficient to support grasses as the dominant plant type. Grasslands in the
wider sense are among the largest ecosystems in the world; their area is
estimated to be 40.5 percent of the terrestrial area excluding Greenland and
Antarctica (White et al., 2000). Different types of grasslands include:

1. Tropical Grasslands

Tropical grasslands also called savannas are found in tropical parts of Africa,
South America, and Australia and are characterized by extensive grasslands
spotted with occasional trees or patches of trees. Although savannas receive
50 to 150 cm of rain per year, the rain is not distributed evenly throughout
the year. Typically, a period of heavy rainfall is followed by a prolonged
drought which results in a very seasonally structured ecosystem. Fire and
grazing undoubtedly play important roles in maintaining the character of the
savanna biome, particularly in wetter regions, as grasses can persist better
than other forms of vegetation under both influences. Savannas are
characterized by a co-dominance of grasses and woody plants. Such
vegetation is characteristic of regions with alternating wet and dry seasons.
Savannas range from grass with occasional trees to shrubs to communities
where trees form an almost continuous canopy as a function of precipitation
and soil texture. Productivity and decomposition in savanna ecosystems are
closely tied to the seasonality of precipitation. Savannas support a large and
varied assemblage of both invertebrate and vertebrate herbivores. The
African savanna is dominated by a large, diverse population of ungulate
fauna and associated carnivores. Savannas have been heavily impacted by
agriculture.

1. Temperate Grasslands

Temperate grasslands, also known as prairies or steppes, are widely

distributed over temperate parts of the world. Temperate grasslands cover
vast expanses of plains and gently rolling hills in the interiors of North and
South America, Europe, and Asia. In these grasslands, winters are bitterly
cold, summers are hot and dry, and annual precipitation is fairly sparse and
falls unevenly through the year. In North America, grasslands develop within
continental climate zones where rainfall ranges between 30 and 85 cm per
year and winters are cold. The growing season increases from north to south
from about 120 to 300 days. These grasslands are often called prairies.
Extensive grasslands are also found in central Asia, where they are called
steppes. Precipitation is infrequent, so organic detritus does not decompose
rapidly, and the soils are rich in organic matter and nutrient content. The
vegetation is dominated by grasses, which grow to heights over 2 m in the
moister parts of these grasslands and to less than 0.2 m in more arid regions.
Fires are infrequent in temperate deserts because the habitat produces little
fuel.
 Mediterranean Shrublands

The Mediterranean shrublands, also called chaparral, are located near

oceans and are dominated by shrubby plants. Mediterranean shrublands
have a climate with wet, cool winters and hot, dry summers. Rainfall is 40 to
100 cm (15 to 40 inches) per year. This biome is typical of the Mediterranean
coast and is also found in coastal southern of Chile, and southern Australia.
The vegetation is dominated by
woody shrubs that are adapted to withstand the hot, dry summer. Often
the plants are dormant during the summer. Chaparral consists mostly of
dense growths of low-growing evergreen shrubs and occasional small trees
with leathery leaves that reduce evaporation. During the long, hot and dry
summers, chaparral vegetation becomes very dry and highly flammable. Fire
is a common feature of this biome, and the shrubs are adapted to withstand
occasional fires.
24.2.3 Deserts
Deserts cover 17% of the world’s land mass and harbour almost one-third
of terrestrial global carbon stock. A desert often is defined as an area that
receives less than 10 inches (25.4 cm) of unevenly distributed precipitation
over the year. Much of this land lies between 15° and 30° latitude, where the
air that is carried aloft along the Intertropical Convergence Zone subsides to
form the semi-permanent high-pressure cells that dominate the climate of
tropical deserts. Climatic conditions of aridity lead to high radiation and
high evaporation. Lack of water by climate can be the main reason under all
temperature regimes. Arid regions are defined as areas where potential
evapotranspiration (ET) is higher than precipitation (P) (Figure 2). The most
important factors that affect life in the desert biomes include radiation, heat
and temperature, wind, water and nutrition. The radiant environment to
which organisms in the desert environment are exposed is complex
including, inter alia, direct solar radiation, diffuse radiation from clouds and
the atmosphere, and considerable short wave radiation reflected from the
soil’s surface and other objects. The heat to which a desert organism is
exposed comes not only from solar radiation but includes metabolic heat
production, radiant heat transfer, conduction, convection and evaporative
heat exchange, all of which are exacerbated in the desert environment. Wind
and the role of limited water in the water balance of the organisms are also
important influencing factors, together with nutritional stress.

Figure.2: Global and regional water cycling in arid and humid areas. (E
Evaporation; ET Evapotranspiration; P Precipitation; R Run-off; a arid; h
humid; m marine) (Adapted from Breckle et al., 2001)
The deserts are complex ecosystems with diverse and fragile groupings of
sometimes bizarre plants, animals and fungi and little studied members of
the Protista and Monera. The biomes may be influenced by their positions in
coastal, inland or rain shadow deserts. Key characteristics of the biota are
their adaptations to aridity, climate variability, scant summer and winter
rainfall patterns and, most importantly, unpredictable rainfall. The
adaptations fostering tolerance may take the form of morphological,
physiological or behavioural. Some desert plants use deep roots to tap into
groundwater. Others such as prickly pear and saguaro cacti use widely
spread shallow roots to collect water after brief showers and store it in their
spongy tissue. Evergreen plants conserve water by having wax coated leaves
that minimize evapotranspiration. Others, such as annual wildflowers and
grasses, store much of their biomass in seeds that remain inactive,
sometimes for years, until they receive enough water to germinate. The hot
deserts range from those lacking vegetation to ones with some combination
of chenopods, dwarf shrubs, and succulents
Despite their aridity, desert ecosystems support a surprising diversity of
animal life, including a wide assortment of beetles, ants, locusts, lizards,
snakes, birds, and mammals. The mammals are mostly herbivorous species.
Desert rodents, particularly the family Heteromyidae, and ants feed largely
on seeds and are important in the dynamics of desert ecosystems. Seed-
eating herbivores can eat up to 90 percent of the available seeds. That
consumption can distinctly affect plant composition and plant populations.
Desert carnivores, such as foxes and coyotes, have mixed diets that include
leaves and fruits; even insectivorous birds and rodents eat some plant
material. Omnivory, rather than carnivory and complex food webs, seems to
be the rule in desert ecosystems. The infrequent rainfall coupled with high
rates of evaporation limit the availability of water to plants, so primary
productivity is low. Ephemerality and micro-climate exploitation are found
in many desert plants. Diapause, as exemplified by temporary pond
inhabitants, is usually facultatively, not seasonally, controlled in desert
ecosystems. Prolonged dormancy, or aestivation, is important for
ectothermic vertebrates. Birds and large mammals may undergo seasonal
migration to take advantage of temporary resource availability. Deserts tend
to have relatively low biomass of plants and animals simply because of the
arid environment. Nevertheless, most deserts have relatively high diversity
with respect to reptiles and invertebrates and sometimes to succulent
plants. Depending on the definition of the desert area, the degree of
endemism of invertebrates, reptiles and some plants can be high.
Table 1: Different types of desert in the world.

Threats from water mismanagement, overgrazing, and over browsing by

livestock, agricultural expansion, a lack of law enforcement, and introduced
and exotic species are expected to result in loss of desert species and
habitats. Human population growth and its distribution across the desert
will be one of the most important issues that will be faced during the next
century. Construction of large desert cities, soil destruction by off-road
vehicles and urban development, soil salinization from irrigation, depletion
of underground water supplies, land disturbance and pollution from mineral
extraction and storage of toxic and radioactive wastes are some of such
anthropogenic activities that are posing threat to desert ecology. Deserts
take a long time to recover from disturbances because of their slow plant
growth, low species diversity, slow nutrient cycling (because of little
bacterial activity in their soils), and lack of water. Protection of seemingly
barren desert areas for their undiscovered endemic plants and animals could
be expected to yield valuable results.
24.3 Aquatic Ecosystems
An important determiner of the nature of aquatic ecosystems is the
amount of salt dissolved in the water. Those that have little dissolved salt are
called freshwater ecosystems, and those that have a high salt content are
called marine ecosystems. Several other important factors include the
ability of the sun’s rays to penetrate the water, the depth of the water, the
nature of the bottom substrate, and the water temperature.
24.3.1 Marine Ecosystems
Seawater covers approximately 71 per cent of the earth’s surface, an area
of about 361 million square kilometres (139 million square miles) comprising
the major ocean areas. In the deepest parts the bottom lies more than 10000
m from the surface, and the average depth is about 3700 m. In oceans the
surface area lighted by the sun is small compared to the total volume of
water. This small volume of sunlit water and the dilute solution of nutrients
limit primary production. All of the seas are interconnected by currents,
influenced by wave actions and tides, and characterized by salinity. Vertical
stratification is a key feature of aquatic ecosystems. Light decreases rapidly
with depth, and communities below the photic zone (light zone, often
reaching about 20 m deep) must rely on energy sources other than
photosynthesis to persist. Temperature also decreases with depth. Warm,
bright, near-surface communities, such as coral reefs and estuaries, are
among the world’s most biologically productive environments. Temperature
also affects the amount of oxygen and other elements that can be absorbed
in water. There are broadly two ways in which organisms live in the sea; they
float or swim in the water, or they dwell on or within the sea bottom. Hence
there are two major divisions of the environment, the Pelagic and the
Benthic, the Pelagic Division comprising the whole body of water forming
the seas and oceans, and the Benthic Division the entire sea bottom (Figure
3).

1. Pelagic Marine Ecosystem

The pelagic is divided into two provinces: the neritic province, water that
overlies the continental shelf, and the oceanic province. Because conditions
change with depth, the pelagic is divided into several distinct vertical layers
or zones (Figure 3). The pelagic zone can be further subdivided into
ecological zones based on depth: in the epipelagic or photic zone(0-200m) ,
there are sharp gradients in illumination, temperature, and salinity; the
mesopelagic (200-1000m), has little light to penetrate and the temperature
gradient is more even and gradual, without much seasonal variation and this
zone contains an oxygen-minimum layer and often the maximum
concentration of nutrients (nitrate and phosphate);in the bathypelagic
(1000-4000m), darkness is virtually complete, except for bioluminescent
organisms; temperature is low; and water pressure is great; and the
abyssopelagic region (4000 to 6000m) Areas deeper than 6000m are called
hadalpelagicregions – which includes areas found in deep-sea trenches and
canyons, while they account for the deepest regions on the planet’s oceans,
they compose a very small fraction of the total oceanic environment (for
example, the Mariana trench is a hadal environment).
The pelagic environment is home to two basic groups of marine organisms.
The first group consists of the plankton (Greek for “wandering”) which is
appropriate because they possess little power to “swim” any significant
distance, and are thus passively transported by ocean currents. Planktonic
plants are known as phytoplankton, and planktonic animals are known as
zooplankton (e.g. jellyfish, small crustaceans, pelagic snails, etc.). The second
group of pelagic marine organisms are the free-swimming nekton, including
marine mammals, fish, squid, and some larger crustaceans.
Coral reef ecosystems
Coral reefs are among the best-known marine systems, because of their
extraordinary biological productivity and their diverse and beautiful
organisms. Reefs are colonies of minute, colonial animals (coral polyps) that
live symbiotically with photosynthetic algae. Calcium-rich coral skeletons
shelter the algae, and algae nourish the coral animals. They are a unique
accumulation of dead skeletal material built up by carbonate secreting
organisms, mostly living coral (Cnidaria, Anthozoa) but also coralline red
algae (Rhodophyta, Corallinaceae),green calcerous algae (Halimeda),
foraminifera, and mollusks. Although various types of corals can be found
from the water’s surface to depths of 6000 m, reef-building corals are
generally found at depths of less than 45 m. Reefs are among the most
endangered biological communities. Sediment from coastal development,
farming, sewage, or other pollution can reduce water clarity and smother
coral. Destructive fishing practices, including dynamite and cyanide poison,
have destroyed many Asian reefs. Reefs can also be damaged or killed by
changes in temperature, by invasive fish, and by diseases often lead to coral
bleaching.
Mangrove swamp ecosystems
Mangroves are the dominant ecosystems that line the coasts of
subtropical and tropical coastlines around the world. Mangrove ecosystems
demonstrate close links between vegetation assemblages and geo-
morphologically defined habitats. Mangroves are a diverse group of salt-
tolerant trees that grow along warm, calm marine coasts around the world.
Growing in shallow, tidal mudflats, mangroves help stabilize shorelines,
blunt the force of storms, and build land by trapping sediment and organic
material. Detritus, including fallen leaves, collects below mangroves and
provides nutrients for a diverse community of animals and plants. Both
marine species (such as crabs and fish) and terrestrial species (such as birds
and bats) rely on mangroves for shelter and food. Mangroves are found in
south Florida, the Caribbean, Southeast Asia, Africa, and other parts of the
world where tropical mudflats occur.

1. Benthic Marine Ecosystems

Benthic organisms (those living on the floor of the deep ocean) vary with
depth and substrate. They are strictly heterotrophic and depend on organic
matter that drifts to the bottom. They include filter feeders, collectors,
deposit feeders, and predators. The sea bottom and the seashore together
make up the Benthic Division which comprises three major zones, the
Littoral, the Sublittoral and the Deep Sea Zones. The Littoral Zone includes
the greater part of the seashore together with the wave-splashed region
above high tide level. The Sublittoral Zone is the shallow sea bottom
extending from the lower part of the shore to the continental edge. The
Deep Sea Zone lies below the continental shelf, and can be subdivided into
Bathybenthic and Abyssobenthic Zones. The Bathybenthic zone lies between
the continental edge and a depth of about 4000 m, comprising mainly the
continental slope. The Abyssobenthic Zone is the bottom below 4000 m,
including the continental rise, abyssal plain and deeper parts of the sea floor.
Estuaries
Rivers eventually reach the sea. The place where the one-way flow of
freshwater meets the incoming and outgoing tidal water is an estuary.
Estuary is defined as a semi-enclosed coastal body of water that extends to
the effective limit of tidal influence, within which seawater entering from
one or more free connections with the open sea or any other saline coastal
bodies of water is significantly diluted with freshwater derived from land
drainage and can sustain euryhaline biological species, either a part or
whole of their life cycle (Perillo, 1995). The intermingling of freshwater and
tides creates a nutrient trap exploited by estuarine life. Estuaries are
especially important as nursery sites for fish and crustaceans such as
flounder and shrimp. The adults enter these productive, sheltered areas to
reproduce and then return to the ocean.
24.3.2 Freshwater Ecosystems

Freshwater ecosystems, the study of which is known as limnology, are

conveniently divided into two groups: lentic or standing water habitats, and
lotic or running water habitats.

1. Lentic

The term lentic refers to standing bodies of water such as lakes, reservoirs,
and ponds. Lakes and ponds can be divided into both horizontal and vertical
zones based upon light penetration, temperature, and chemical
characteristics. Associated with them are a variety of biological
communities. On the basis of Light Penetration the lake can be classified
into two zones i.e. littoral zone and limnetic zone. The littoral zone is the
region near the shore where sufficient light reaches the bottom to support
rooted plants. Littoral zone which can further be categorised into (a) zone of
emergent vegetation, (b)zone of floating vegetation and (c) zone of
submerged vegetation. The limnetic zone is the area of open water bounded
by the littoral region.Lakes and larger ponds experience seasonal shifts in
temperature. The heating and cooling of surface waters changes
temperatures throughout the basin. In late spring and early summer
increased solar radiation and warmer air temperatures heat surface waters
faster than deep water. The surface water becomes lighter as its
temperature rises. Inevitably a layer of lighter, warm water forms on top of a
denser cooler layer. When this happens the lake has stratified. On the basis
of Temperature Stratification lentic ecosystems stratified into epilimnion,
metalimnion and hypolimnion. One system for classifying bodies of water is
based on their productivity or trophic status on the basis of which a lake can
be classified into oligotrophic and eutrophic lakes.
Wetlands
Wetland ecosystems are estimated to cover more than 1,280 million
hectares globally. Wetlands are area of marsh, fen, peatland or water,
whether natural or artificial, permanent or temporary, with water that is
static or flowing, fresh, brackish or salt, including areas of marine water, the
depth of which at low tide does not exceed six metres. They are areas of land
where water covers the soil – permanently or just at certain times and
include: rivers, swamps, marshes, billabongs, lakes, lagoons, oases, salt
marshes, mudflats, mangroves, coral reefs, bogs, fens, and peatlands. There
are even underground wetlands. There are a range of wetland classifications
used for different purposes, based on hydro-geomorphology and/or
vegetation characteristics, such as:
Marine (coastal wetlands, including coastal lagoons, rocky shores and
coral reefs)
Estuarine (including deltas, tidal marshes, and mangrove swamps);
Lacustrine (wetlands associated with lakes);
Riverine (rivers and wetlands along rivers and streams); and Palustrine
(marshes, swamps and bogs).
Threats to wetland ecosystems comprise the increasing biotic and abiotic
pressures and perils.

1. Lotic

The term ‘Lotic’ referes to the running water ecosystems such as streams
and rivers. Apart from being a crucial ecosystem linking the land and ocean
systems, rivers serve as a prominent geological agent in tropical and
subtropical regions. River ecology deals mainly with the energy
transformation, nutrient turnover, and storage and processing of organic
matter. Rivers are basically heterotrophic as a substantial proportion of the
biotic energy that drives stream communities is organic matter derived from
allochthonous sources. Many aquatic plants, invertebrates, and fishes have
adapted to fill a specific niche. Within most rivers, the pattern of flow
variation, and its ramifications in terms of substrate stability and water
quality, is the dominant factor controlling species distributions. Lotic
ecosystems are longitudinally interdependent and that energy processing
depends on the retention and cycling of nutrients by biological communities
in upstream areas. Biological community of a river ecosystem includes a
variety of plants and animals. Producers in aquatic systems include diatoms,
blue green algae, and water moss. Nymphs of dragon flies, may flies and
stone flies, beetles, snails, fishes, etc. are the common consumers in river
ecosystems. Riparian and in stream vegetations are the integral components
of the river ecosystems. The riparian vegetation plays an important role in
sustaining the vitality of rivers. It is a source of organic matter, which forms
an important source of energy in most of the river ecosystems.

Summary

1. Complex interactions of many macro and microscopic species of plants

and animals, together with the rich arrays of symbiotic fungi and
lichens, are the base of every ecosystem, from forests to coral reefs and
freshwater to soils. All ecosystems are not only sources of rich
biodiversity, but also extremely productive areas, offering a lot of
benefits to mankind.
2. All types of ecosystems fall into one of two categories: terrestrial or
aquatic. Terrestrial ecosystems are land based, while aquatic are water
based.
3. The distribution of terrestrial ecosystems is primarily related to
precipitation and temperature.
4. Terrestrial ecosystems can be classified into three types i.e. forest
ecosystem, grassland ecosystem and desert ecosystem.
5. Global aquatic ecosystems fall into two broad categories defined by
salinity – fresh water ecosystems and salt water ecosystems.
6. Aquatic ecosystems that have little dissolved salt are called freshwater
ecosystems, and those that have a high salt content are called marine
ecosystems.
7. The two major divisions of the Marine ecosystem are the Pelagic and the
Benthic, the Pelagic Division comprising the whole body of water
forming the seas and oceans, and the Benthic Division the entire sea
bottom.
8. Fresh water ecosystems can be divided into two groups: lentic or
standing water habitats, and lotic or running water habitats.
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