DATA STRUCTURES
CSO102
WEEK-2 (DRAFT)
ASYMPTOTIC NOTATIONS
❑ Big ‘O’ Notation:(Tight Upper Bound)
Consider two functions f and g these functions are from N to R*.
For an Algorithm of input size n f(n) is said to be O(g(n)) if there are
two constants c,n0 such that for c>0 and n ≥n0 ,c g(n) ≥ f(n)
and = constant(>0) for all n greater than n0
O(1) < O(log n) <O(n) <O(n log n)<O( n2 ) <O( n3 ) <O(kn )
❑ Small ‘o’ Notation:(Loose Upper Bound)
Consider two functions f and g these functions are from N to R*.
For an Algorithm of input size n f(n) is said to be o(g(n)) if there are
two constants c,n0 such that for c>0 and n ≥n0 ,c g(n) ≥ f(n) and
=0
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= O (n^m)
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❑ ‘𝛺’ Notation:(Tight Lower Bound)
Consider two functions f and g these functions are from N to R*.
For an Algorithm of input size n f(n) is said to be O(g(n)) if there are
two constants c,n0 such that for c>0 and n ≥n0 ,f(n) ≥ cg(n)
and = constant(>0) for all n greater than n0
❑ ‘’𝟂’
Notation:(Loose Lower Bound)
Consider two functions f and g these functions are from N to R*.
For an Algorithm of input size n f(n) is said to be o(g(n)) if there are
two constants c,n0 such that for c>0 and n ≥n0 ,f(n) ≥ cg(n) and
=∞
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= Ω (n^m)
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❑ ‘𝛉’ Notation:
❑ If the Maximum running time of algorithm is equal to minimum
running time then we use this notation.
❑ Ex: f(n)= 2n+6
=O(n)= 𝛺(n)
Therefore f(n)= 𝛉(n)
‘’
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= θ (n^m)
EXAMPLES
Ex1: Let f(n)= 3n+5 <= 4n, n>=5
and =3/4. (g(n)=n) ,c=4, n0=5.
If g(n)= n2 then =0 ,c=1, n0 =5.
Therefore
f(n) =O(n)=o( n2 ) = 𝛺(n)= 𝟂(1)
Ex2:Quadratic Function
f(n) =27 n2 +16 n+25
<= 27 n2 +16 n+ n for n>=25
<= 27 n2 +17 n for n>=25
<= 27 n2 + n2 for n>=25
EXAMPLES
■ Therefore f(n) =O( n2 )
Cubic Function:
f(n)=3 n3 +4 n
<=3 n3 + n3 for all n>=4
<= 4 n3
Therefore f(n)= O( n3 ) , n0 =4
Exponential Function :
f(n) = 2n + 6n
<= 2n + 6 2n for all n>=1
<= 7. 2n
Therefore f(n)=O(2n)
EXAMPLES
Ex : Logarithmic Function f(n)= O(log n!)
log(n!) =log(1.2.3. .... n)
=log1+log 2+........+log n
<=log n+ log n+ logn +....+logn
<=nlogn
Therefore f(n)= O(nlogn)
log(n!)=log(1.2.3......n)
>=log n/2+log n/2+log n/2+.......logn/2 (n/2 times)
>=n/2 log n/2
f(n)= 𝛺(nlogn)
Therefore f(n)= 𝛉(nlogn)
RECURRENCE RELATIONS
TOPICS
◼ Definition of Recurrence Relation
◼ Problems
◼ Homogenous Relation
◼ In-Homogenous Relation
◼ Change of Variable Me
◼ Recursion Tree Method
◼ Master Method
◼ Some Examples of Master Method
DEFINITION OF RECURRENCE RELATION
◼ An Advance Counting Technique
◼ Counting Problems can be Solved by Finding Relationships
Example: If a colony begins with five bacteria and the number of
bacteria in the colony doubles every hour ,how many will be
present after n hours.
Sol: an =2an-1 , a0=5 .
◼ A sequence is a discrete structure used to represent ordered list of
elements.
◼ Def : A Recurrence relation for the sequence {an} is a equation that
n
expresses an in terms of one or more of the previous terms of the
sequence , namely a0,a1,.....,an-1 for all integers n with n > n0,where
n0 is a non negative integer.
Problems
◼ Tower of Hanoi
– Hn = 2Hn-1+ 1
– H1=1
◼ To Count Bit Strings of Specified Length
– Number of Bit String of length n that do not have 2 consecutive 0’s
– Write recurrence relations we will assume that n> 3 so bit string
has at least 3 bits
– End with 1 |any bit string of length n-1 and no 2 consective 0’s|
– End with 0 |any bit string of length n-2 and no 2 consective 0’s|10
– An=an-1+an-2 for n> 3
– Initial Conditions a1=2,a2=3
Solutions to some Recurrence Relations
◼ Substitution Method:
– Problem 1:
•tn=tn-1+n n>2, t1=1
•tn=tn-2+n-1+n
• =1+2+3+.................+n=O(n2)
– Problem 2:
•tn=tn/2+n
• =tn/4+n/2+n , k=log(n)
• =1+2+..........+2k=2k+1-1=O(n)
Homogenous Recurrence
◼ a0tn+a1tn-1+------+aktn-k=0
k
◼ tn = ∑ ci r ni
i= 1
◼ ci’s are determined by intial conditions
– Let tn=xn ,where x is a constant
– a0xn+a1xn-1+-----+akxn-k=0
– X=0 (trivial solution )
– If r1,r2,r3,..rk, are k roots of above characteristic equation.
◼ Problem 1:
– tn-3tn-1-4tn-2=0,t0=0 and t1=1
– x2-3x-4=0 => tn=c1(-1)n+c24n
T(n) = O(4n)
Homogenous Recurrence
F(n) = F(n-1) + F(n-2) with F(0)=0, F(1)=1
int fibbonacci(int n) {
if(n == 0){
return 0;
} else if(n == 1) {
return 1;
} else {
return (fibbonacci(n-1) + fibbonacci(n-2));
}
}
Time Complexity:~ O(1.6n)
Homogenous Recurrence
F(n) = F(n-1) + F(n-2) with F(0)=0, F(1)=1
int i, n;
// initialize first and second terms
int t1 = 0, t2 = 1;
// initialize the next term (3rd term)
int nextTerm = t1 + t2;
// get no. of terms from user
printf("Enter the number of terms: ");
scanf("%d", &n);
// print the first two terms t1 and t2
printf("Fibonacci Series: %d, %d, ", t1, t2);
// print 3rd to nth terms
for (i = 3; i <= n; ++i) {
printf("%d, ", nextTerm);
t1 = t2;
t2 = nextTerm;
nextTerm = t1 + t2; Time Complexity: O(n)
Merge Sort
Merge Sort
step: start
step 1: start
step 2: declare array and left, right, mid variable
step 3: perform merge function.
if left > right
return
mid= (left+right)/2
mergesort(array, left, mid)
mergesort(array, mid+1, right)
merge(array, left, mid, right)
step 4: Stopmid, right)
step 4: Stop
Example: T(n) = 2T(n/2) + cn
T(n) = O (n log n)
