Analysis of Algorithms

CS-221

Asymptotic Analysis
Instructor: Mohsin Raza Khan
 Analysis of Algorithms
• An algorithm is a finite set of precise instructions
for performing a computation or for solving a
problem.
• What is the goal of analysis of algorithms?
– To compare algorithms mainly in terms of running
time but also in terms of other factors (e.g., memory
requirements, programmer's effort etc.)
• What do we mean by running time analysis?
– Determine how running time increases as the size
of the problem increases.

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 Input Size

• Input size (number of elements in the input)

– size of an array

– polynomial degree

– # of elements in a matrix

– # of bits in the binary representation of the input

– vertices and edges in a graph

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 Types of Analysis
• Worst case
– Provides an upper bound on running time
– An absolute guarantee that the algorithm would not run longer,
no matter what the inputs are
• Best case
– Provides a lower bound on running time
– Input is the one for which the algorithm runs the fastest

Lower Bound  Running Time  Upper Bound

• Average case
– Provides a prediction about the running time
– Assumes that the input is random
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 How do we compare algorithms?
• We need to define a number of objective
measures.

(1) Compare execution times?

Not good: times are specific to a particular
computer !!

(2) Count the number of statements executed?

Not good: number of statements vary with
the programming language as well as the
style of the individual programmer.
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 Ideal Solution

• Express running time as a function of the

input size n (i.e., f(n)).
• Compare different functions corresponding
to running times.
• Such an analysis is independent of
machine time, programming style, etc.

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 Example
• Associate a "cost" with each statement.
• Find the "total cost“ by finding the total number of times
each statement is executed. 
Algorithm 1 Algorithm 2

Cost Cost
arr[0] = 0; c1 for(i=0; i<N; i++) c2
arr[1] = 0; c1 arr[i] = 0; c1
arr[2] = 0; c1
... ...
arr[N-1] = 0; c1 
----------- -------------
c1+c1+...+c1 = c1 x N (N+1) x c2 + N x c1 =
(c2 + c1) x N + c2

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 Another Example

• Algorithm 3 Cost
  sum = 0; c1
for(i=0; i<N; i++) c2
for(j=0; j<N; j++) c2
sum += arr[i][j]; c3
------------
c1 + c2 x (N+1) + c2 x N x (N+1) + c3 x N2

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 Asymptotic Analysis
• To compare two algorithms with running
times f(n) and g(n), we need a rough
measure that characterizes how fast
each function grows.
• Hint: use rate of growth
• Compare functions in the limit, that is,
asymptotically!
(i.e., for large values of n)

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 Rate of Growth
• Consider the example of buying elephants and
goldfish:
Cost: cost_of_elephants + cost_of_goldfish
Cost ~ cost_of_elephants (approximation)
• The low order terms in a function are relatively
insignificant for large n
n4 + 100n2 + 10n + 50 ~ n4

i.e., we say that n4 + 100n2 + 10n + 50 and n4

have the same rate of growth

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 Asymptotic Notation

• O notation: asymptotic “less than”:

– f(n)=O(g(n)) implies: f(n) “≤” g(n)

  notation: asymptotic “greater than”:

– f(n)=  (g(n)) implies: f(n) “≥” g(n)

  notation: asymptotic “equality”:

– f(n)=  (g(n)) implies: f(n) “=” g(n)

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 Big-O Notation

• We say fA(n)=30n+8 is order n, or O (n)

It is, at most, roughly proportional to n.
• fB(n)=n2+1 is order n2, or O(n2). It is, at most,
roughly proportional to n2.
• In general, any O(n2) function is faster-
growing than any O(n) function.

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 Visualizing Orders of Growth
• On a graph, as
you go to the
right, a faster
growing

Value of function 
function fA(n)=30n+8
eventually
becomes
larger... fB(n)=n2+1

Increasing n 

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 More Examples …

• n4 + 100n2 + 10n + 50 is O(n4)

• 10n3 + 2n2 is O(n3)
• n3 - n2 is O(n3)
• constants
– 10 is O(1)
– 1273 is O(1)

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 Back to Our Example
Algorithm 1 Algorithm 2
Cost Cost
arr[0] = 0; c1 for(i=0; i<N; i++) c2
arr[1] = 0; c1 arr[i] = 0; c1
arr[2] = 0; c1
...
arr[N-1] = 0; c1 
----------- -------------
c1+c1+...+c1 = c1 x N (N+1) x c2 + N x c1 =
(c2 + c1) x N + c2

• Both algorithms are of the same order: O(N)

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 Example (cont’d)

Algorithm 3 Cost
  sum = 0; c1
for(i=0; i<N; i++) c2
for(j=0; j<N; j++) c2
sum += arr[i][j]; c3
------------
c1 + c2 x (N+1) + c2 x N x (N+1) + c3 x N2 = O(N2)

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 Asymptotic notations
• O-notation

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Big-O Visualization

O(g(n)) is the set of

functions with smaller
or same order of
growth as g(n)

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 Asymptotic notations (cont.)
  - notation

(g(n)) is the set of functions

with larger or same order of
growth as g(n)

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 Asymptotic notations (cont.)
 -notation

(g(n)) is the set of functions

with the same order of growth
as g(n)

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 Relations Between Different Sets
• Subset relations between order-of-growth sets.

RR
O( f ) ( f )
•f
( f )

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Common orders of magnitude

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Common orders of magnitude

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 Logarithms and properties
• In algorithm analysis we often use the notation “log n”
without specifying the base

Binary logarithm lg n  log2 n log x y  y log x

Natural logarithm ln n  loge n log xy  log x  log y
x
lg k n  (lg n )k log  log x  log y
y
lg lg n  lg(lg n ) log a
a logb x  x b

log b x  log a x
log a b

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 More Examples
• For each of the following pairs of functions, either f(n) is
O(g(n)), f(n) is Ω(g(n)), or f(n) = Θ(g(n)). Determine
which relationship is correct.
– f(n) = log n2; g(n) = log n + 5 f(n) =  (g(n))
– f(n) = n; g(n) = log n2 f(n) = (g(n))
– f(n) = log log n; g(n) = log n f(n) = O(g(n))
– f(n) = n; g(n) = log2 n f(n) = (g(n))
– f(n) = n log n + n; g(n) = log n f(n) = (g(n))
– f(n) = 10; g(n) = log 10 f(n) = (g(n))
– f(n) = 2n; g(n) = 10n2 f(n) = (g(n))
– f(n) = 2n; g(n) = 3n f(n) = O(g(n))
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 Asymptotic Notations in Equations
• On the right-hand side
 (n2) stands for some anonymous function in (n2)
2n2 + 3n + 1 = 2n2 + (n) means:
There exists a function f(n)  (n) such that
2n2 + 3n + 1 = 2n2 + f(n)
• On the left-hand side
2n2 + (n) = (n2)
No matter how the anonymous function is chosen on
the left-hand side, there is a way to choose the
anonymous function on the right-hand side to make
the equation valid.

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