LECTURE NOTES ON BUSINESS MATHEMATICS 20

5. L IMITS OF F UNCTIONS
This lecture is based on Sec-
5.1. Left limits and right limits. Given a function y = f (x) and a specific point tions 11.1 and 11.2 in the
x0 , the limit (or left/right limits) of f (x) at the point x0 , describing the behaviour textbook.
of f (x) near the point x0 , is either a real number a or ±• or doesn’t exist.
For example, the algebraic (or symbolic) expression

lim x2 = 4
x!2+

means that the function y = x2 tends to 4 as x approaches 2 from the right-hand

side. Generally, we may use three different "languages" to understand the same
fact in limits.
Algebraically, the right limit

lim f (x) = a
x!x0+

represents the statement in English that as x tends to x0 from the right-hand side,
the y-value of f (x) gets closer and closer to a. Geometrically,

y
f (x)

x0 x

Similarly, the left limit

lim f (x) = a
x!x0

represents the fact that as x tends to x0 from the left-hand side, the y-value of f (x)
gets closer and closer to a.

E XAMPLE 5.1. Find the left limits of the following functions f (x) at the point x0 :
(1) f (x) = ex and x0 = 1;
(2) f (x) = 1x and x0 = 0;
(3) f (x) = |x| (the absolute value function) and x0 = 0.

Solution. (1) lim ex = e (this means that as x approaches 1 from the left-hand
x!1
side, the value of ex gets closer and closer to e); (2) lim 1
x = • (this means that
x!0
as x approaches 0 from the left-hand side, the value of 1x
goes down to the negative
infinity); (3) lim |x| = 0 (this means that as x tends to 1 from the left-hand side,
x!0
the value of |x| approaches 0). 3
 LECTURE NOTES ON BUSINESS MATHEMATICS 21

Note that the absolute value function y = |x| can be rewritten as

(
x, x > 0,
y = |x| =
x, x < 0.
A function of this form is called a piecewise function. This means that we divide
the function’s domain into several subsets and describe the function piece by piece.
E XAMPLE 5.2 (Group work). Find the right limits of the following functions f (x)
at the point x0 :
(1) f (x) = ex and x0 = 1;
(2) f (x) = ln x and x0 = 0;
(3) f (x) = 1x and x0 = 0.

Solution. (1) lim ex = e; (2) lim ln x = •; (3) lim 1

x = •. 3
x!1+ x!0+ x!0+
5.2. Limits. Suppose that ` is a real number or one of {•, •}. We say that the
limit of a function f (x) at a point x0 is `, denoted as lim f (x) = `, provided that
x!x0
(1) lim f (x) exists;
x!x0
(2) lim f (x) exists;
x!x0+
(3) lim f (x) = lim f (x) = `.
x!x0 x!x0+

E XAMPLE 5.3 (Group work). Find the following limits:

(1) lim ex .
x!1
(2) lim x2 and lim 2x .
x!0 x!0
(3) lim 1 and lim 1x .
x!0 x x!•

Solution. (1) lim ex = e because lim ex = lim ex = e. (2) lim x2 = 0 and lim 2x =
x!1 x!1+ x!1 x!0 x!0
1. (3) lim 1 doesn’t exist because the left limit is not equal to the right limit; and
x!0 x
lim 1 = 0. 3
x!• x

y y = 2x
y = ex
y = 3x

5.3. Computing limits. Let x0 , a, and b be real numbers, and let f (x) and g(x) be
functions such that
lim f (x) = a and lim g(x) = b.
x!x0 x!x0
We have several rules below to compute the limits of functions.
 LECTURE NOTES ON BUSINESS MATHEMATICS 22

Proposition 5.4 (Sum/difference rule).

lim ( f (x) ± g(x)) = lim f (x) ± lim g(x) = a ± b.
x!x0 x!x0 x!x0

Proposition 5.5 (Product rule).

lim ( f (x) · g(x)) = lim f (x) · lim g(x) = ab.
x!x0 x!x0 x!x0

Proposition 5.6 (Quotient rule).

lim f (x)
f (x) x!x0 a
lim = = ,
x!x0 g(x) lim g(x) b
x!x0

provided b 6= 0.

Proposition 5.7 (Power rule). For any real number r for which ar exists in R, we
have ✓ ◆ r
lim [ f (x)r ] = lim f (x) = ar .
x!x0 x!x0

E XAMPLE 5.8 (Group work). Find

p
4x 11
lim .
x!5 ex 3

Solution. Using the power rule we have

✓ ◆1
p 1 2 1 p
lim ( 4x 11) = lim (4x 11) = 2 lim (4x 11) = 92 = 9 = 3.
x!5 x!5 x!5

Using the sum/difference rule we see that lim (ex 3) = lim (ex ) + lim ( 3) =
x!5 x!5 x!5
e5 3 6= 0. Thus the quotient rule gives us
p
p lim ( 4x 11)
4x 11 x!5 3
lim x = = .
x!5 e 3 lim (ex 3) e5 3
x!5
3
It is not necessary to express the answer e5 3
in a decimal form. 3

R EMARK 5.9. These rules above remain to hold if the limit symbol is replaced by
the left limit or right limit or the number x0 is replaced by • or •. 3

Proposition 5.10. Let y = f (x) be a polynomial function and x0 be a real number.

Then lim f (x) exists and
x!x0
lim f (x) = f (x0 ).
x!x0
In particular, lim c = c and lim x = x0 .
x!x0 x!x0

E XAMPLE 5.11. Find lim (x3 x + 4).

x!3

Solution. The limit is equal to 33 3 + 4 = 28. 3

 LECTURE NOTES ON BUSINESS MATHEMATICS 23

f (x)
Proposition 5.12. Let y = g(x) be a rational function and x0 be a real number such
f (x)
that g(x0 ) 6= 0. Then lim g(x) exists and
x!x0

f (x) f (x0 )
lim = .
x!x0 g(x) g(x0 )
E XAMPLE 5.13. Find
x
lim .
x!3 x3 x+4
3
Solution. The limit is equal to 28 . 3
E XAMPLE 5.14. Find
x2 + x 6
lim .
x!2 x 2
Solution. Since x2 + x 6 = (x 2)(x + 3), it follows that
x2 + x 6 (x 2)(x + 3)
lim = lim = lim (x + 3) = 5. 3
x!2 x 2 x!2 x 2 x!2

5.4. L’Hôpital’s rule (optional). The L’Hôpital’s rule says that if lim f (x) =
x!x0
lim g(x) = one of {0, •, •}, then
x!x0

f (x) f 0 (x)
(5.1) lim = lim 0
x!x0 g(x) x!x0 g (x)

where g0 (x) 6= 0.
We recall an important fact in differentiation that
(5.2) (ex )0 = ex
for all x 2 R. We will not provide a proof for this elegant result, as the standard
proof is quite lengthy and beyond the scope of this course.
E XAMPLE 5.15. Compute
ex 1
lim .
x!0 x2 + x

Solution. Let f (x) = ex 1 and g(x) = x2 + x and we obeserve that

lim f (x) = lim (ex 1) = e0 1=0
x!0 x!0
and
lim g(x) = lim (x2 + x) = 02 + 0 = 0.
x!0 x!0
Note that 0 2
g (x) = (x + x)0 = 2x + 1 can be defined at any real number x. We may
use the L’Hôpital’s rule to see that
ex 1 (ex 1)0 ex lim ex e0
x!0
lim 2 = lim 2 = lim = = = 1.
x!0 x + x x!0 (x + x)0 x!0 2x + 1 lim (2x + 1) 1
x!0
0
This is an example of type 0. 3
Exercise: lim (x · ln x) =?
x!0+
 LECTURE NOTES ON BUSINESS MATHEMATICS 24

E XAMPLE 5.16. Compute

x2
lim .
x!• ex

Solution. Repeatedly apply the L’Hôpital’s rule and obtain

x2 (x2 )0 2x x0 1
lim x
= lim x
= lim x
= 2 · lim x
= 2 · lim x = 2 · 0 = 0.
x!• e x!• (e ) 0 x!• e x!• (e ) 0 x!• e
•
This is an example of type • . 3