Subject: MAT060.

Calculus with Analytic Geometry I

Chapter: 2

Chapter Title: Limits and Continuity of Functions

Time Frame: 8 hrs

Chapter Objectives:
1. To define limit of a function using intuitive approach

2. To state the informal definition of a limit of a function

3. To use theorems in evaluating limits of algebraic and transcendental functions

4. To evaluate functions with infinite limits and functions at limits of infinity

5. To determine if a function is continuous or not

Introduction:
The calculus is the most powerful mathematical invention of modern times. The credit for its
discovery has been claimed for both Sir Isaac Newton (English,1642-1727) and Wilhelm Leibniz
(German, 1646-1716), and a great controversy raged for years in England and Germany as to who
was the first to invent it. Leibniz was the first to publish an account of it, in 1684, though his
notebooks showed that he used the method for the first time in 1675. Newton published his book on
the subject in 1693, but he communicated his discovery of it to friends in 1669. It is generally agreed
now that the two mathematicians reached the fundamental basis of the invention independently.
The invention of calculus by these two men has provided the scientists a mathematics that could
handle many of the difficult problems about motion and things that changes. Today, calculus has
important applications in almost every field of study that uses mathematics.
In the study of calculus, the first important concept or idea which must be introduced is the
concept of limit. This limit concept is at the foundation of almost all of mathematical analysis,
and an understanding of it is absolutely essential.
In this chapter, we begin our discussion with the intuitive concept of the limit of a function.

1 Intuitive Idea of Limit

Let f be a function defined at each x on some open interval I containing the real number a, except
possibly at a itself. If x gets closer and closer to a, the value f (x) gets closer and closer to some
real number L, then we say that ”the limit of f (x), as x approaches a, is L” or ”f (x) approaches
L as x approaches a”, written
lim f (x) = L.
x→a

Let us consider some examples.

Example 1.1 Let f : R → R be defined by f (x) = x + 1 and a = 1. Then f is defined for all x on
every open interval containing a = 1. Evaluate lim f (x).
x→1

Solution: Let us investigate the value f (x) when x gets closer and closer to 1 but not equal to 1.

x 0.9 0.99 0.999 0.9999 0.99999

f (x) 1.9 1.99 1.999 1.9999 1.99999

As x gets closer and closer to 1 from the left, the value f (x) gets closer and closer to 2.

1
 x 1.00001 1.0001 1.001 1.01 1.1
f (x) 2.00001 2.0001 2.001 2.01 2.1

As x gets closer and closer to 1 from the right, the value f (x) gets closer and closer to 2.
Hence, f (x) approaches 2 as x approaches 1. Therefore,

lim f (x) = 2. 
x→1

x2 − 4
Example 1.2 Let f : R\{2} → R be defined by f (x) = and a = 2. Then f is defined for
x−2
all x on every open interval containing a = 2 except at a = 2. Evaluate lim f (x).
x→2

Solution: Let us investigate the value f (x) when x gets closer and closer to 2 but not equal to 2.

x 1.9 1.99 1.999 1.9999 1.99999

f (x) 3.9 3.99 3.999 3.9999 3.99999

As x gets closer and closer to 2 from the left, the value f (x) gets closer and closer to 4.

x 2.00001 2.0001 2.001 2.01 2.1

f (x) 4.00001 4.0001 4.001 4.01 4.1

As x gets closer and closer to 2 from the right, the value f (x) gets closer and closer to 4.
Hence, f (x) approaches 4 as x approaches 2. Therefore,

lim f (x) = 4. 
x→2

|x|
Example 1.3 Let f : R\{0} → R be defined by f (x) = and a = 0. Then f is defined for all x
x
on every open interval containing a = 0 except at a = 0 lim f (x).
x→0

Solution: Let us investigate the value f (x) when x gets closer and closer to 0 but not equal to 0.

x −0.1 −0.01 −0.001 −0.0001 −0.00001

f (x) −1 −1 −1 −1 −1

As x gets closer and closer to 0 from the left, the value f (x) is always −1.

x 0.00001 0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1

f (x) 1 1 1 1 1

As x gets closer and closer to 0 from the right, the value f (x) is always 1. Hence, f (x) does
not approach to a single value as x approaches 0. Therefore,

lim f (x) does not exist in R. 

x→0

1
Example 1.4 Let f : R\{0} → R be defined by f (x) = and a = 0. Then f is defined for all x
x2
on every open interval containing a = 0 except at a = 0. Evaluate lim f (x).
x→0

Solution: Let us investigate the value f (x) when x gets closer and closer to 0 but not equal to 0.

x −0.1 −0.01 −0.001 −0.0001 −0.00001

f (x) 100 104 106 108 1010

As x gets closer and closer to 0 from the left, the value f (x) increases without bound.

x 0.00001 0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1

f (x) 1010 108 106 104 100

2
 As x gets closer and closer to 0 from the right, the value f (x) increases without bound.
Hence, f (x) does not approach to a real number as x approaches 0. Therefore,

lim f (x) does not exist in R. 

x→0

1
Example 1.5 Let f : R\{0} → R be defined by f (x) = and a = 0. Then f is defined for all x
x
on every open interval containing a = 0 except at a = 0. Evaluate lim f (x).
x→0

Solution: Let us investigate the value f (x) when x gets closer and closer to 0 but not equal to 0.

x −0.1 −0.01 −0.001 −0.0001 −0.00001

f (x) −10 −102 −103 −104 −105

As x gets closer and closer to 0 from the left, the value f (x) decreases without bound.

x 0.00001 0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1

f (x) 105 104 103 102 10

As x gets closer and closer to 0 from the right, the value f (x) increases without bound.
Hence, f (x) does not approach to a real number as x approaches 0. Therefore,

lim f (x) does not exist in R. 

x→0

Exercises 1.6 Evaluate the following limits applying the ”Intuitive Idea of Limit”.
x2 − x
1. lim (3x − 2) 2. lim (x2 + 2) 3. lim
x→0 x→1 x→1 x − 1
x2 − 9 1 1
4. lim 5. lim 4 6. lim
x→3 x − 3 x→0 x x→1 x − 1

2 Informal Definition of Limit of a Function

Let f (x) be any function and let a and L be numbers. If we can make f (x) as close to L as we
please by choosing x sufficiently close to a then we say that the limit of f (x) as x approaches a is
L or symbolically

lim f (x) = L.
x→a

Notes:

1. To evaluate any two sided limit, we always make sure that f (x) is defined for all values of x
in some open interval containing a.

2. Formal definition of the limit of a function involves the delta-epsilon definition. This definition
will not be included in this chapter. A formal definition of limit can be found in more advanced
calculus text.

3. Historically, the limit concept developed in just the way we have presented it above.

3
3 Computation of Limits of Functions in the Set R

We need some rules to evaluate the limits of functions in a straightforward manner. Hence, we
enumerate some limit theorems. In this section, we will compute limits in the set of the real
numbers.

Theorem 3.1 (Limit of a Constant Function) If c is a constant, then for any real number a,
lim c = c.
x→a

Example 3.2 lim 4 = 4.

x→0

Example 3.3 lim (−5) = −5.

x→−2

Theorem 3.4 (Limit of a Polynomial Function) If c0 , c1 , ..., cn−1 , cn are constants, then for
any real number a,
lim (cn xn + cn−1 xn−1 + ... + c1 x + c0 ) = cn an + cn−1 an−1 + ... + c1 a + c0 .
x→a

Example 3.5 Evaluate lim (4x − 7).

x→3

Solution: By Theorem 3.4, lim (4x − 7) = 4(3) − 7 = 5. 

x→3

Example 3.6 Evaluate lim (2x2 − 6x + 1).

x→−2

Solution: By Theorem 3.4, lim (2x2 − 6x + 1) = 2(−2)2 − 6(−2) + 1 = 21. 

x→−2

Theorem 3.7 Let f be a function such that lim f (x) exist and n a positive integer. Then
x→a
h in
lim [f (x)]n = lim f (x) .
x→a x→a

Example 3.8 Evaluate lim (3x3 − 7x2 − 15)4 .

x→3

Solution: By Theorem 3.4,

lim (3x3 − x2 + 4) = 3(3)3 − 7(3)2 − 15 = 3.
x→3

Therefore, by Theorem 3.7,

h i4
lim (3x3 − 7x2 − 15)4 = lim (3x3 − 7x2 − 15)
x→3 x→3
= (3)4
= 81. 

Example 3.9 Evaluate lim (x4 + 4x2 − 1)5 .

x→0

Solution: By Theorem 3.4,

lim (x4 + 4x2 − 1) = −1.
x→0

Therefore, by Theorem 3.7,

h i5
lim (x4 + 4x2 − 1)5 = lim (x4 + 4x2 − 1)
x→0 x→0
= (−1)5
= −1. 

4
 q
Theorem 3.10 Let f be a function such that lim f (x) exist and n a positive integer. If n lim f (x) ∈
x→a x→a
R, then
p q
n
lim f (x) = n lim f (x).
x→a x→a
p
3
Example 3.11 Evaluate lim 4x2 − 5x + 1.
x→−2

Solution: By Theorem 3.4,

lim (4x2 − 5x + 1) = 4(−2)2 − 5(−2) + 1 = 27.
x→−2

Then,
q √
3
3 lim (4x2 − 5x + 1) = 27 = 3 ∈ R.
x→−2

Therefore, Theorem 3.10,

p
3
q
lim 4x2 − 5x + 1 = 3 lim (4x2 − 5x + 1)
x→−2 x→−2
= 3. 
p
Example 3.12 Evaluate lim 2x3 − 5x − 1.
x→−1

Solution: By Theorem 3.4,

lim (2x3 − 5x − 1) = 2(−1)3 − 5(−1) − 1 = 2.
x→−1

Then
q √
lim (2x3 − 5x − 1) = 2 ∈ R.
x→−1

Therefore, by Theorem 3.10,

p q
lim 2x3 − 5x − 1 = lim (2x3 − 5x − 1)
x→−1 x→−1
√
= 2. 

Theorem 3.13 (Limit of a Quotient) Let f and g be functions such that lim f (x) and lim g(x)
x→a x→a
both exist. If lim g(x) 6= 0, then
x→a

f (x) lim f (x)

lim = x→a .
x→a g(x) lim g(x)
x→a

x+3
Example 3.14 Evaluate lim .
x→3 x2 − 4x

Solution: By Theorem 3.4,

lim (x + 3) = 3 + 3 = 6 and lim (x2 − 4x) = (3)2 − 4(3) = −3.
x→3 x→3

Therefore, by Theorem 3.13,

x+3 lim (x + 3)
x→3
lim =
x→3 x2 − 4x lim (x2 − 4x)
x→3
6
=
−3
= −2. 

5
 x2 − 4
Example 3.15 Evaluate lim .
x→2 x + 2

Solution: By Theorem 3.4,

lim (x2 − 4) = (2)2 − 4 = 0 and lim (x + 2) = 2 + 2 = 4.

x→2 x→2

Therefore, by Theorem 3.13,

x2 − 4 lim (x2 − 4)
x→2
lim =
x→2 x + 2 lim (x + 2)
x→2
0
=
4
= 0. 

x2 + 4
Example 3.16 Evaluate lim .
x→2 x − 2

Solution: By Theorem 3.4,

lim (x2 + 4) = (2)2 + 4 = 8 and lim (x − 2) = 2 − 2 = 0.

x→2 x→2

The limit of the denominator is zero. Thus, Theorem 3.13 does not apply. Since the limit of the
numerator is not a zero real number, we may conclude that
x2 + 4
lim does not exist in R. 
x→2 x − 2

This example will be discussed further in Section 5.

x2 − 4
Example 3.17 Evaluate lim .
x→2 x − 2

Solution: By Theorem 3.4,

lim (x2 − 4) = (2)2 − 4 = 0 and lim (x − 2) = 2 − 2 = 0.

x→2 x→2

The limit of the denominator is zero. Thus, Theorem 3.13 does not apply. 

x−2
Example 3.18 Evaluate lim .
x→2 x2 − 4x + 4
Solution: By Theorem 3.4,

lim (x − 2) = 2 − 2 = 0 and lim (x2 − 4x + 4) = (2)2 − 4(2) + 4 = 0.

x→2 x→2

The limit of the denominator is zero. Thus, Theorem 3.13 does not apply. 

In Example 3.17 and Example 3.18, since the limits of the numerator and the denominator
are both zero, we cannot conclude whether the limit exists in R or not. We may apply the next
theorem.

Theorem 3.19 Let F and G be functions such that F (x) = G(x) for all x 6= a. If lim G(x) exists,
x→a
then lim F (x) exists. Moreover,
x→a

lim F (x) = lim G(x).

x→a x→a

6
 x2 − 4
Example 3.20 Evaluate lim .
x→2 x − 2

Solution: By Theorem 3.4,

lim (x2 − 4) = 4 − 4 = 0 and lim (x − 2) = 2 − 2 = 0.

x→2 x→2

We may apply Theorem 3.19.

If x 6= 2, then
x2 − 4 (x + 2)(x − 2)
= = x + 2.
x−2 x−2
By Theorem 3.4,

lim (x + 2) = 2 + 2 = 4.
x→2

Therefore, by Theorem 3.19,

x2 − 4
lim = lim (x + 2) = 4. 
x→2 x − 2 x→2

x2 + x − 6
Example 3.21 Evaluate lim .
x→−3 x2 + 5x + 6

Solution: By Theorem 3.4,

lim (x2 + x − 6) = (−3)2 − 3 − 6 = 0

x→−3

and

lim (x2 + 5x + 6) = (−3)2 + 5(−3) + 6 = 0.

x→−3

We may apply Theorem 3.19.

If x 6= −3, then
x2 + x − 6 (x + 3)(x − 2) x−2
2
= = .
x + 5x + 6 (x + 3)(x + 2) x+2
By Theorem 3.4,

lim (x − 2) = −3 − 2 = −5 and lim (x + 2) = −3 + 2 = −1.

x→−3 x→−3

By Theorem 3.13,
lim (x − 2)
x−2 x→−3 −5
lim = = = 5.
x→−3 x + 2 lim (x + 2) −1
x→−3

Therefore, by Theorem 3.19,

x2 + x − 6 x−2
lim 2
= lim = 5. 
x→−3 x + 5x + 6 x→−3 x + 2

x−2
Example 3.22 Evaluate lim .
x→2 x2 − 4x + 4
Solution: By Theorem 3.4,

lim (x − 2) = 2 − 2 = 0 and lim (x2 − 4x + 4) = (2)2 − 4(2) + 4 = 0.

x→2 x→2

7
We may apply Theorem 3.19.

If x 6= 2, then
x−2 x−2 1
= = .
x2 − 4x + 4 (x − 2)(x − 2) x−2
By Theorem 3.4,
lim 1 = 1 and lim (x − 2) = 2 − 2 = 0.
x→2 x→2

1
Hence, lim does not exist in R. Therefore, Theorem 3.19 does not apply. 
x→2 x − 2

x−2
In Example 3.22, we cannot conclude lim does not exist in R. This will be discussed
x→2 x2 − 4x + 4
further in Section 5.

Exercises 3.23 Evaluate the following limits. When appropriate, indicate the limit theorems
being applied.

1. lim (5x3 − 3x2 + 2x + 1) 2. lim (4x2 − 7x + 6)3

x→−1 x→2
p 2x + 1
3. lim 4x2 − x − 4 4. lim
x→−4 y→−1 x2 − 3x + 4
x2 − 9 y 2 − 6y + 5
5. lim 6. lim
x→3 x − 3 y→5 2y + 1

4 One-Sided Limits
In our discussion of the limit of a function as the variable x approaches a real number a, we are
concerned with the values of x in an open interval I containing a but not at a itself. Both values
of x from the right and from the left of a, which are close to a, are considered. The ordinary limit
that we defined is also called the two-sided limit. But, there are functions that are not defined in
any open interval containing a. Thus, we consider only either those values of x greater then a or
those values of x less than a. For example, consider the function
√
f (x) = x − 2
Then f (x) is not defined if x < 2, which implies that f is not defined on any open interval I
containing 2. Thus,
lim f (x) has no meaning.
x→2
√
However, if we restrict values of x greater than 2, the value of x − 2 can be made closer and closer
to 0 as x gets closer and closer to 2 but greater than 2. In this case, as x approaches 2 from the
right, the right-hand limit of f (x) is 0. In symbols, we write
lim f (x) = 0.
x→2+

We have the following intuitive definitions of the right hand and left hand limits. These two
limits are what we called one-sided limits.
Right Hand Limit: lim f (x) = L. This has the same definition as the two-sided limit except it
x→a+
requires x > a

Left Hand Limit: lim f (x) = L. This has the same definition as the two-sided limit except it
x→a−
requires x < a

8
Remark 4.1 The limit theorems discussed earlier hold if ”x → a” is replaced by ”x → a+ ” or
”x → a− ”.
√
Example 4.2 Evaluate lim x − 2.
x→2+
√
Solution: The function x − 2 is defined on some open interval from the right of 2. Then

lim (x − 2) = 0.
x→2+

Thus,
q √
lim (x − 2) = 0 = 0 ∈ R.
x→2+

Therefore,
√ q
lim x−2= lim (x − 2) = 0. 
x→2+ x→2+
√ √
Note: lim x − 2 is not defined since the function x − 2 is not defined for all real numbers
x→2−
x < 2.
√
Example 4.3 Evaluate lim 1 − x.
x→1−
√
Solution: The function 1 − x is defined on some open interval from the left of 1. Then

lim (1 − x) = 1 − 1 = 0.
x→1−

Thus,
q √
lim (1 − x) = 0 = 0 ∈ R.
x→1−

Therefore,
√ q
lim 1−x= lim (1 − x) = 0. 
x→1− x→1−
√ √
Note: lim 1 − x is not defined since the function 1 − x is not defined for all real numbers
x→1+
x > 1.
1 − x2
Example 4.4 Evaluate lim .
x→−1− 1+x

1 − x2
Solution: The function is defined on some open interval from the left of −1. Then
1+x
lim (1 − x2 ) = 1 − (−1)2 = 0 and lim (1 + x) = 1 − 1 = 0.
x→−1− x→−1−

We may apply Theorem 3.13.

If x 6= −1, then

1 − x2 (1 − x)(1 + x)
=
1+x 1+x
= 1 − x.

We have

lim (1 − x) = 1 − (−1) = 2.
x→−1−

Therefore, by Theorem 3.13

9
 1 − x2
lim = lim (1 − x) = 2. 
x→−1− 1+x x→−1−

1 − x2
Example 4.5 Evaluate lim .
x→−1+ 1+x

1 − x2
Solution: The function is defined on some open interval from the right of −1. Then
1+x
lim (1 − x2 ) = 1 − (−1)2 = 0 and lim (1 + x) = 1 − 1 = 0.
x→−1+ x→−1+

We may apply Theorem 3.13.

If x 6= −1, then

1 − x2 (1 − x)(1 + x)
=
1+x 1+x
= 1 − x.

We have

lim (1 − x) = 1 − (−1) = 2.
x→−1+

Therefore, by Theorem 3.13

1 − x2
lim = lim (1 − x) = 2. 
x→−1+ 1+x x→−1+

x−1
Example 4.6 Evaluate lim √ .
x→1 + x−1
x−1
Solution: The function √ is defined on some open interval from the right of 1. Then
x−1
lim (x − 1) = 1 − 1 = 0.
x→1+

Thus,
q √
lim (x − 1) = 0 = 0 ∈ R.
x→1+

Hence,
√ q
lim x−1= lim (x − 1) = 0.
x→1+ x→1+

We may apply Theorem 3.13.

If x 6= 1, then
√
x−1 x−1 x−1
√ =√ ·√
x−1 x−1 x−1
√
(x − 1) x − 1
=
x−1
√
= x − 1.

From the above solution, we have

√
lim x − 1 = 0.
x→1+

Therefore, by Theorem 3.13,

10
 x−1 √
lim √ = lim x − 1 = 0. 
x→1+ x − 1 x→1+
x−1 √
Note: lim √ is not defined since the function x − 1 is not defined for all real numbers
x→1− x−1
x < 1.

Theorem 4.7 lim f (x) exists if and only if lim f (x) and lim f (x) both exist and are equal.
x→a x→a+ x→a−
Moreover,

lim f (x) = lim f (x) = lim f (x).

x→a x→a+ x→a−

Example 4.8 Use 3.4.9 to find lim (x2 − 2x + 2) if it exists.

x→2

Solution: We evaluate the left-hand and right-hand limits.

lim (x2 − 2x + 2) = 22 − 2(2) + 2 = 2 and lim (x2 − 2x + 2) = 22 − 2(2) + 2 = 2.

x→2− x→2+

Thus,

lim (x2 − 2x + 2) = lim (x2 − 2x + 2) = 2.

x→2− x→2+

Therefore, by 4.7,

lim (x2 − 2x + 2) exists and lim (x2 − 2x + 2) = 2.

x→2 x→2

Example 4.9 Let (

2x2 , if x < 1
f (x) =
3 − x, if 1 ≤ x.
Find lim f (x) if it exists.
x→1

Solution: We evaluate the left-hand and right-hand limits of f (x) at a = 1.

If x < 1, then f (x) = 2x2 . Thus,

lim f (x) = lim (2x2 ) = 2(1)2 = 2.

x→1− x→1−

If 1 ≤ x, then f (x) = 3 − x. Thus,

lim f (x) = lim (3 − x) = 3 − 1 = 2.

x→1+ x→1+

Hence,

lim f (x) = lim f (x).

x→1− x→1+

Therefore, by Theorem 4.7,

lim f (x) exists and lim f (x) = 2. 

x→1 x→1

Example 4.10 Let (

x + 3, if x ≤ −3
f (x) =
3 − x, if −3 < x.
Find lim f (x) if it exists.
x→−3

11
Solution: We evaluate the left-hand and right-hand limits of f (x) at a = −3.

If x ≤ −3, then f (x) = x. Thus,

lim f (x) = lim (x + 3) = −3 + 3 = 0.

x→−3− x→−3−

If −3 < x, then f (x) = 3 − x. Thus,

lim (3 − x) = 3 − (−3) = 6.
x→−3+

Hence,

lim f (x) 6= lim f (x).

x→−3− x→−3+

Therefore, by Theorem 4.7,

lim f (x) does not exist in R.

x→−3

Exercises 4.11 Evaluate the following limits. When appropriate, indicate the limit theorems
being applied.
p p p
1. lim x2 − 1 2. lim x2 − 1 3. lim (x + x2 − 1)
x→1+ x→1− x→−1−
√
p
2
x−4 x−4
4. lim (x + x − 1) 5. lim √ 6. lim
x→−1 + x→4+ x−4 x→4+ x−4
√
4−x 4−x x−4
7. lim √ 8. lim 9. lim 2
x→4 − 4−x x→4− 4−x x→4 x − 4
+

x+1 x2 − 2x
10. lim 11. lim
x→−1− x−1 x→0− x2 − 3x

Exercises 4.12 Find the limit of the function if it exists. If the limit does not exist, state the
reason.
(
x + 4, if x ≤ −4
1. f (x) = ; find lim f (x).
4 − x, if −4 < x x→0
(
3 + t2 , if t < −2
2. f (t) = ; find lim f (t).
11 − t2 , if −2 ≤ t t→−2

x + 2, if x < −1

3. f (x) = x2 , if −1 ≤ x ≤ 1 ; find lim f (x).
 x→−1
2 − x, if 1 < x

(
2, if x ≤ −2
4. f (x) = ; find lim f (x).
−2, if 2 < x x→−2

5 Infinite Limits
In this section ,we will discuss functions whose limit increases without bound or the limit decreases
without bound. Such functions are discussed in Examples 1.4, and 1.5, where the denominator of
these functions approaches to 0. We concluded that the limit of these functions does not exist in
R. Here, we will determine whether the limit is either +∞ or −∞.

12
Definition 5.1 Let f be a function defined for all x in some open interval I containing the real
number a, except possibly at a itself. We say that f (x) increases without bound as x approaches
a, written

lim f (x) = +∞,

x→a

if for every real number K > 0, there exists a δ > 0 such that

if 0 < |x − a| < δ, then f (x) > K.

1
Example 5.2 Let f : R\{0} → R be defined by f (x) = and a = 0. By Example 1.4, we
x2
conclude that lim f (x) does not exist in R. Determine whether the limit is +∞ or −∞.
x→0

Solution: The function f is defined for all real numbers x on every open interval containing a = 0
except at a = 0. Let us investigate the value f (x) when x gets closer and closer to 0 but not equal
to 0.
x −0.1 −0.01 −0.001 −0.0001 −0.00001
f (x) 100 104 106 108 1010

As x gets closer and closer to 0 from the left, the value f (x) increases without bound.

x 0.00001 0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1

f (x) 1010 108 106 104 100

As x gets closer and closer to 0 from the right, the value f (x) increases without bound.

Hence, f (x) increases without bound as x approaches 0. Therefore,

lim f (x) = +∞. 

x→0

Remark 5.3 lim f (x) = +∞ can also be read as ”the limit of f (x), as x approaches a, is positive
x→a
infinity”. The one sided limits lim f (x) = +∞ and lim f (x) = +∞, can be defined accordingly.
x→a+ x→a−

Definition 5.4 Let f be a function defined for all x in some open interval I containing the real
number a, except possibly at a itself. We say that f (x) decreases without bound as x approaches
a, written

lim f (x) = −∞,

x→a

if for every real number K < 0, there exists a δ > 0 such that

if 0 < |x − a| < δ, then f (x) < K.

Remark 5.5 lim f (x) = −∞ can also be read as ”the limit of f (x), as x approaches a, is negative
x→a
infinity”. The one sided limits lim f (x) = −∞ and lim f (x) = −∞, can be defined accordingly.
x→a+ x→a−

1
Example 5.6 Let f : R\{0} → R be defined by f (x) = − and a = 0. Using the Intuitive Idea
x2
of Limit, we can show that lim f (x) does not exist in R. Determine whether the limit is +∞ or
x→0
−∞.

Solution: The function f is defined for all x on every open interval containing a = 0 except at
a = 0. Investigate the value f (x) when x gets closer and closer to 0 but not equal to 0.

x −0.1 −0.01 −0.001 −0.0001 −0.00001

f (x) −100 −104 −106 −108 −1010

13
 As x gets closer and closer to 0 from the left, the value f (x) decreases without bound.
x 0.00001 0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1
f (x) −1010 −108 −106 −104 −100
As x gets closer and closer to 0 from the right, the value f (x) decreases without bound.

Hence, f (x) decreases without bound as x approaches a. Therefore,

lim f (x) = −∞.
x→0

This example can also be solved using the next Theorem.

Theorem 5.7 If r is any positive integer, then

1
(i) lim r = +∞;
x→0+ x
1
(ii) lim r = +∞, if r is even;
x→0− x
1
(iii) lim r = −∞, if r is odd;
x→0− x
1
(iv) lim r = +∞, if r is even.
x→0 x

Example 5.8 Applying Theorem 5.7, we have

1 1
1. lim = +∞. 2. lim = −∞.
x→0+ x x→0 x
1 1
3. lim 4 = +∞. 4. lim 4 = +∞.
x→0+ x x→0− x
1 1
5. lim 5 = +∞. 6. lim 5 = −∞.
x→0+ x x→0− x
1 1
7. lim 6 = +∞. 8. lim 6 = +∞.
x→0 x
+ x→0 x
−
1 1
9. lim 2 = +∞. 10. lim 4 = +∞.
x→0 x x→0 x

1
In Example 5.8(1), the right-hand limit lim = +∞ and in Example 5.8(2), the left-hand
x→0+ x
1
limit lim = −∞. In other words, the right-hand limit and the left-hand limit are not equal.
x→0− x
1
This implies that the two-sided limit, lim is neither +∞ nor −∞. This is discussed in Example
x→0 x
1.5, where we concluded that the limit does not exist in R. Here, we may conclude that the limit
does not exist and consider evaluating the right-hand limit and the left-hand limit.
1 1 1
Similarly, lim 5 = +∞ and lim 5 = −∞. Therefore, lim 5 does not exist.
x→0+ x x→0− x x→0 x

Theorem 5.9 If a is a real number, and if lim g(x) = 0 and lim f (x) = c, where c is a constant
x→a x→a
not equal to zero, then
(i) if lim f (x) = c > 0 and if g(x) → 0 through positive values of g(x), then
x→a

f (x)
lim = +∞;
x→a g(x)

(ii) if lim f (x) = c > 0 and if g(x) → 0 through negative values of g(x), then
x→a

f (x)
lim = −∞;
x→a g(x)

14
(iii) if lim f (x) = c < 0 and if g(x) → 0 through positive values of g(x), then
x→a

f (x)
lim = −∞;
x→a g(x)

(iv) if lim f (x) = c < 0 and if g(x) → 0 through negative values of g(x), then
x→a

f (x)
lim = +∞.
x→a g(x)

Remark 5.10 Theorem 5.9 is true if ”x → a” is replaced by ”x → a+ ” or ”x → a− ”.

x2 + 4
Example 5.11 Evaluate lim .
x→2+ x−2

Solution: lim (x2 + 4) = 8 and lim (x − 2) = 0.

x→2+ x→2+
x2 +4
Thus, lim does not exist in R. Determine if the limit is +∞ or −∞.
x→2+ x−2
Since x → 2+ , consider a real number x > 2 but closer to 2. Let x = 2.1. Then substitute to x − 2:

2.1 − 2 = 0.1 > 0.

Hence,

lim (x2 + 4) > 0 and (x − 2) → 0 through positive values.

x→2+

Therefore, by Theorem 5.9(i),

x2 + 4
lim = +∞. 
x→2+ x−2

x2 + 4
Example 5.12 Evaluate lim .
x→2− x−2

Solution: lim (x2 + 4) = 8 and lim (x − 2) = 0.

x→2− x→2−
x2 +4
Thus, lim does not exist in R. Determine if the limit is +∞ or −∞.
x→2− x−2
Since x → 2− , consider a real number x < 2 but closer to 2. Let x = 1.9. Then substitute to x − 2:

1.9 − 2 = −0.1 < 0.

Hence,

lim (x2 + 4) > 0 and (x − 2) → 0 through negative values.

x→2−

Therefore, by Theorem 5.9(ii),

x2 + 4
lim = −∞. 
x→2− x−2

x2 + 4 x2 + 4 x2 + 4
Note that lim 6= lim = −∞. Therefore, lim does not exist. (See
x→2+ x−2 x→2− x − 2 x→2 x − 2
Example 3.16)

15
 x−2
Example 5.13 Use Theorem 5.9 to evaluate lim , if it exists.
x→1 x2 − 2x + 1
Solution:
x−2
1. Evaluate lim .
x→1+ x2 − 2x + 1
lim (x − 2) = −1 and lim (x2 − 2x + 1) = 0.
x→1+ x→1+
x−2
Thus, lim does not exist in R. Determine if the limit is +∞ or −∞.
x→1+ x2 − 2x + 1
Since x → 1+ , consider a real number x > 1 but closer to 1. Let x = 1.1. Then sustitute to
x2 − 2x + 1:
(1.1)2 − 2(1.1) + 1 = 0.01 > 0.
Hence,
lim (x − 2) < 0 and (x2 − 2x + 3) → 0 through positive values.
x→1+

By Theorem Theorem 5.9(iii),

x−2
lim = −∞.
x→1+ x2 − 2x + 1
x−2
2. Evaluate lim .
x→1− x2 − 2x + 1
lim (x − 2) = −1 and lim (x2 − 2x + 1) = 0.
x→1− x→1−
x−2
Thus, lim does not exist in R. Determine if the limit is +∞ or −∞.
x→1− x2 − 2x + 1
Since x → 1− , consider a real number x < 1 but closer to 1. Let x = 0.9. Then substitute to
x2 − 2x + 1:
(0.9)2 − 2(0.9) + 13 = 0.01 > 0.
Hence,
lim (x − 2) < 0 and (x2 − 2x + 1) → 0 through positive values.
x→1−

By Theorem 5.9(iii),
x−2
lim = −∞.
x→1− x2 − 2x + 1
We have
x−2 x−2
lim = lim = +∞.
x→1+ x2 − 2x + 1 x→1− x2 − 2x + 1
Therefore,
x−2
lim = −∞. 
x→1 x2 − 2x + 1
x−1
Example 5.14 Evaluate lim .
x→0− x2 + x
Solution: lim (x − 1) = −1 and lim x2 + x = 0.
x→0− x→0−
x−1
Thus, lim does not exist in R. Determine if the limit is +∞ or −∞.
x→0− x2 + x
Since x → 0− , consider a real number x < 0 but closer to 0. Let x = −0.1. Then substitute to
x2 + x

16
 (−0.1)2 + (−0.1) = −0.09 < 0.

Hence,

lim (x − 1) < 0 and (x2 + x) → 0 through negative values.

x→0−

Therefore, by Theorem 5.9(iv),

x−1
lim = +∞. 
x→2− x2 + x
x−2
Example 5.15 Evaluate lim .
x→2+ x2 − 4x + 4

Solution: lim (x − 2) = 0 and lim (x2 − 4x + 4) = 0.

x→2+ x→2+
We may apply Theorem 3.13.

If x > 2, then
x−2 x−2 1
= = .
x2 − 4x + 4 (x − 2)(x − 2) x−2
We have

lim 1 = 1 and lim (x − 2) = 0.

x→2+ x→2+

1
Thus, lim does not exist in R. Determine if the limit is +∞ or −∞.
x→2+ x−2
Since x → 2+ , consider a real number x > 2 but closer to 2. Let x = 2.1. Then substitute to x − 2:

2.1 − 2 = 0.1 > 0.

Hence,

lim 1 > 0 and (x − 2) → 0 through positive values.

x→2+

By Theorem 5.9(i),
1
lim = +∞.
x→2+ x−2
Therefore,
x−2 1
lim = lim = +∞. 
x→2+ x2 − 4x + 4 x→2 x − 2
+

Theorem 5.16 (i) If lim f (x) = +∞ and lim g(x) = c, where c is a real number, then
x→a x→a

lim [f (x) + g(x)] = +∞.

x→a

(ii) If lim f (x) = −∞ and lim g(x) = c, where c is a real number, then
x→a x→a

lim [f (x) + g(x)] = −∞.

x→a

Remark 5.17 Theorem 5.16 is true if ”x → a” is replaced by ”x → a+ ” or ”x → a− ”.

17
  
1 1
Example 5.18 Evaluate lim + .
x→1+ x−1 x+1

1
Solution: First, we evaluate lim .
x→1+ x−1
We have

lim 1 = 1 and lim (x − 1) = 0.

x→1+ x→1+

1
Thus, lim does not exist in R. Determine if the limit is +∞ or −∞.
x→1+ x−1
Since x → 1+ , consider a real numbner x > 1 but closer to 1. Let x = 1.1. Then substitute to
x − 1:

1.1 − 1 = 0.1 > 0.

Hence,

lim 1 > 0 and (x − 1) → 0 through positive values.

x→1+

By Theorem 5.9(i),
1
lim = +∞.
x→1+ x−1
1
Next, we evaluate lim .
x→1+ x+1
We have

lim 1 = 1 and lim (x + 1) = 2.

x→1+ x→1+

Thus,
1 1
lim = .
x→1+ x+1 2
Therefore, by Theorem 5.16(i),

1 1
lim + = +∞. 
x→1+ x − 1 x+1
 
−3x x+4
Example 5.19 Evaluate lim − .
x→2− 2 − x x+1

−3x
Solution: First, we evaluate lim .
x→2− 2−x
We have

lim (−3x) = −6 and lim (2 − x) = 0.

x→2− x→2−

−3x
Thus, lim does not exist in R. Determine if the limit is +∞ or −∞.
x→2− 2−x
Since x → 2− , consider a real number x < 2 but closer to 2. Let x = 1.9. Then substitute to 2 − x:

2 − 1.9 = 0.1 > 0.

Hence,

lim (−3x) < 0 and (2 − x) → 0 through positive values.

x→2−

18
By Theorem 5.9(iii),
−3x
lim = −∞.
x→2− 2−x
x+4
Next, we evaluate lim .
x→2− x+1
We have

lim (x + 4) = 6 and lim (x + 1) = 2.

x→2− x→2−

Thus,
x+4
lim = 62 = 3.
x→2− x+1
Therefore, by Theorem 5.16(ii),
 
−3x x+4
lim − = −∞. 
x→2− 2−x x+1

Theorem 5.20 If lim f (x) = +∞ and lim g(x) = c, where c is a nonzero real number, then
x→a x→a
(i) if lim g(x) = c > 0, then lim [f (x) · g(x)] = +∞.
x→a x→a
(ii) if lim g(x) = c < 0, then lim [f (x) · g(x)] = −∞.
x→a x→a

Remark 5.21 Theorem 3.5.19 is true if ”x → a” is replaced by ”x → a+ ” or ”x → a− ”.

 
2x + 1 3x + 4
Example 5.22 Evaluate lim · .
x→1+ x2 − 2x + 1 x+5

2x + 1
Solution: First, we evaluate lim .
x→1+ x2 − 2x + 1
We have

lim (2x + 1) = 3 and lim (x2 − 2x + 1) = 0.

x→1+ x→1+

2x + 1
Thus, lim does not exist in R. Determine if the limit is +∞ or −∞.
x→1+ x2 − 2x + 1
Consider a real number x > 1 but closer to 1. Let x = 1.1. Then

(1.1)2 − 2(1.1) + 1 = 0.01 > 0.

Hence,

lim (2x + 1) > 0 and (x2 − 2x + 1) → 0 through positive values.

x→1+

By Theorem 5.9(i),
2x + 1
lim = +∞.
x→1+ x2 − 2x + 1
3x + 4
Next, we evaluate lim .
x→1+ x+5
We have

lim (3x + 4) = 7 and lim (x + 5) = 6.

x→1+ x→1+

Thus,
3x + 4 7
lim = > 0.
x→1+ x+5 6

19
Therefore, by Theorem 5.20(i),
 
2x + 1 3x + 4
lim · = +∞. 
x→1+ x2 − 2x + 1 x+5
 
3x x−4
Example 5.23 Evaluate lim · .
x→2+ 2x − 4 x + 1

3x
Solution: First, we evaluate lim .
x→2+ 2x − 4
We have

lim (3x) = 6 and lim (2x − 4) = 0.

x→2+ x→2+

3x
Thus, lim does not exist in R. Determine if the limit is +∞ or −∞.
x→2+ 2x − 4
Consider a real number x > 2 but closer to 2. Let x = 2.1. Then

2(2.1) − 4 = 0.2 > 0.

Hence,

lim (3x) > 0 and (2x − 4) → 0 through positive values.

x→2+

By Theorem 5.9(i),
3x
lim = +∞.
x→2+ 2x − 4
x−4
Next, we evaluate lim .
x→2+ x+1
We have

lim (x − 4) = −2 and lim (x + 1) = 2.

x→2+ x→2+

Thus,
x−4 −2
lim = = −1 < 0.
x→2+ x+1 2
Therefore, by Theorem 5.20(ii),
 
3x x−4
lim · = −∞. 
x→2+ 2x − 4 x + 1

Theorem 5.24 If lim f (x) = −∞ and lim g(x) = c, where c is a nonzero real number, then
x→a x→a
(i) if lim g(x) = c > 0, then lim [f (x) · g(x)] = −∞.
x→a x→a
(ii) if lim g(x) = c < 0, then lim [f (x) · g(x)] = +∞.
x→a x→a

Remark 5.25 Theorem 5.24 is true if ”x → a” is replaced by ”x → a+ ” or ”x → a− ”.

 
1 − 2x 3x + 4
Example 5.26 Evaluate lim · .
x→−1− 1 − x2 x+5

1 − 2x
Solution: First, we evaluate lim .
x→−1− 1 − x2
We have

lim (1 − 2x) = 3 and lim (1 − x2 ) = 0.

x→−1− x→−1−

20
 1 − 2x
Thus, lim does not exist in R. Determine if the limit is +∞ or −∞.
x→−1− 1 − x2
Consider a real number x < −1 but closer to −1. Let x = −1.1. Then

1 − (−1.1)2 = −0.21 < 0.

Hence,

lim (1 − 2x) > 0 and (1 − x2 ) → 0 through negative values.

x→−1−

By Theorem 5.9(ii),
1 − 2x
lim = −∞.
x→−1− 1 − x2
3x + 4
Next, we evaluate lim .
x→−1− x+5
We have

lim (3x + 4) = 1 and lim (x + 5) = 4.

x→−1− x→−1−

Thus,
3x + 4 1
lim = > 0.
x→−1− x+5 4
Therefore, by Theorem 5.24(i),
 
1 − 2x 3x + 4
lim · = −∞. 
x→−1− 1 − x2 x+5
 
−3x x − 4
Example 5.27 Evaluate lim · .
x→−2− x3 + 8 x + 3

−3x
Solution: First, we evaluate lim .
x→−2− x3 + 8
We have

lim (−3x) = 6 and lim (x3 + 8) = 0.

x→−2− x→−2−

−3x
Thus, lim does not exist in R. Determine if the limit is +∞ or −∞.
x→−2− x3 + 8
Consider a real number x < −2 but closer to −2. Let x = −2.1. Then

(−2.1)3 + 8 = −1.261 < 0.

Hence,

lim (−3x) > 0 and (x3 + 8) → 0 through negative values.

x→−2−

By Theorem 5.9(ii),
−3x
lim = −∞.
x→−2− x3 + 8
x−4
Next, we evaluate lim .
x→−2− x+3
We have

lim (x − 4) = −6 and lim (x + 3) = 1.

x→−2− x→−2−

21
Thus,
x−4 −6
lim = = −6 < 0.
x→−2− x+3 1
Theorem 5.24(ii),
 
−3x x − 4
lim · = +∞. 
x→−2− x3 + 8 x + 3

Exercises 5.28 Evaluate the following limits. When appropriate, indicate the limit theorems
being applied:
3 + x2
 
2 3
1. lim 2. lim −
x→0− x3 x→−4− x2 + 3x − 4 x−4
2
√
x − 11x + 30 −3 x − 5
3. lim 2 4. lim
x→5+ x − 10x + 25 x→5+ x−5
√  
5−x 3 x+1
5. lim 6. lim ·
x→5− x − 5 x→0+ x 2x2 − 1
   
2x + 5 6x x+1 x
7. lim + 8. lim ·
x→−3+ x−3 5x + 4 x→ 32
+ 2x − 3 2x + 3
 
2 5x
9. lim −
x→4− x − 4 x+4

6 Limits at Infinity

In this section, we consider limits of functions when the independent variable either increases or
decreases without bound.
x2
Example 6.1 Let f be a function defined by f (x) = . We investigate the function values
x2 + 1
as x increases without bound. Consider the table below.
x 10 102 103 104 105
f (x) .99 .9999 .999999 .99999999 .999999999

As x increases without bound, f (x) gets closer and closer to 1. In this case, we write
x2
lim f (x) = lim = 1.
x→+∞ x→+∞ x2 +1

x2
Example 6.2 Let f be a function defined by f (x) = . We investigate the function values
x2 + 1
as x decreases without bound. Consider the table below.
x −10 −102 −103 −104 −105
f (x) .99 .9999 .999999 .99999999 .999999999

As x increases without bound, f (x) gets closer and closer to 1. In this case, we write
x2
lim f (x) = lim = 1.
x→−∞ x→−∞ x2 + 1

Definition 6.3 Let f be a function defined at every real number in some open interval (a, +∞).
The limit of f (x) as x increases without bound , is L, written

22
 lim f (x) = L,
x→+∞

if for every  > 0, there exists a real number N > 0 such that
if x > N , then |f (x) − L| < .

Definition 6.4 Let f be a function defined at every real number in some open interval (−∞, a).
The limit of f (x) as x decreases without bound , is L, written
lim f (x) = L.
x→−∞

if for every  > 0, there exists a real number N < 0 such that
if x < N , then |f (x) − L| < .

Theorem 6.5 If r is a positive integer and c is any real number, then

c c
(i) lim r = 0 and (ii) lim r = 0.
x→+∞ x x→−∞ x

Remark 6.6 Theorem 5.9 is still valid if x → a is replaced by x → +∞ or x → −∞.

x2 + 2
Example 6.7 Evaluate lim .
x→+∞ x2 + 1

Solution:
lim (x2 + 2) = +∞ and lim (x2 + 1) = +∞.
x→+∞ x→+∞

Divide the numerator and denominator by x2 (x2 is the highest power of x occuring in either the
numerator or the denominator). For x > 0,
x2 + 2 2
x2 1+
= x2 = x2 .
x2 + 1 2
x +1 1
1+
x2 x2
By Theorem 6.5(i),
2 1
lim =0 and lim = 0.
x→+∞ x2 x→+∞ x2

Thus,
 
2
lim 1+ 2 =1+0=1
x→+∞ x
and
 
1
lim 1 + 2 = 1 + 0 = 1.
x→+∞ x
Hence,
2
 
1+
1
lim 
 x2  = = 1.
x→+∞ 1  1
1+ 2
x
Therefore,
2
 
x2
+2 1+
lim 2 = lim 
 x2  = 1. 
x→+∞ x + 1 x→+∞ 1 
1+ 2
x

23
 3x2 + 5
Example 6.8 Evaluate lim .
x→−∞ x3 − 4x

Solution:

lim (3x2 + 5) = +∞ and lim (x3 − 4x) = −∞.

x→−∞ x→+∞

Divide the numerator and denominator by x3 . For x < 0,

3x2 + 5 3 5
3x2+5 3
+ 3
= 3x = x x .
x3 − 4x x − 4x 4
1− 2
x3 x
By Theorem 6.5(ii),
3 5 4
lim = 0, lim = 0, and lim = 0.
x→−∞ x x→−∞ x3 x→−∞ x2

Thus,
 
3 5
lim + =0+0=0
x→−∞ x x3
and
 
4
lim 1− 2 = 1 − 0 = 1.
x→−∞ x
Hence,
3 5
 
+ 3
 0
lim  x x  = = 0.

x→−∞ 4 1
1− 2
x
Therefore,
3 5
 
3x2 + 5 + 3
lim 3 = lim  x x  = 0. 
 
x→−∞ x − 4x x→−∞ 4
1− 2
x

2x − 3x2
Example 6.9 Evaluate lim .
x→+∞ 4x + 5

Solution:

lim (2x − 3x2 ) = −∞ and lim (4x − 5) = +∞.

x→+∞ x→+∞

Divide the numerator and denominator by x2 . For x > 0,

2x − 3x2 2
2x − 3x2 2
−3
= x = x .
4x + 5 4x + 5 4 5
+
x2 x x2
By Theorem 6.5(i),
2 4 5
lim = 0, lim = 0, and lim = 0.
x→+∞ x x→+∞ x x→+∞ x2
Then

24
  
2
lim − 3 = 0 − 3 = −3
x→+∞ x
and
 
4 5
lim + 2 = 0 + 0 = 0.
x→+∞ x x
2
 
−3
Thus, lim  x  does not exist in R. Determine if the limit is +∞ or −∞.
 
x→+∞ 4 5
+ 2
x x
Since x → +∞, consider a very large positive real number x. Let x = 103 . Then
4 5
3
+ > 0.
10 (103 )2
Hence,
   
2 4 5
lim − 3 < 0 and + → 0 through positive values.
x→+∞ x x x2
By Theorem 5.9(iii),
2
 
−3
lim  x = −∞.
 
x→+∞ 4 5 
+ 2
x x
Therefore,
2
 
2x − 3x2 − 3
lim = lim  x  = −∞. 
 
x→+∞ 4x + 5 x→+∞ 4 5
+ 2
x x

2x − 3x2
Example 6.10 Evaluate lim .
x→−∞ 4x + 5

Solution:

lim (2x − 3x2 ) = −∞ and lim (4x − 5) = −∞.

x→−∞ x→+∞

Divide the numerator and denominator by x2 . For x < 0,

2x − 3x2 2
2x − 3x2 2
−3
= x = x .
4x + 5 4x + 5 4 5
+
x2 x x2
By Theorem 6.5(ii),
2 4 5
lim = 0, lim = 0, and lim = 0.
x→−∞ x x→−∞ x x→−∞ x2
Then
 
2
lim − 3 = 0 − 3 = −3
x→−∞ x
and
 
4 5
lim + 2 = 0 + 0 = 0.
x→−∞ x x

25
 2
 
−3
Thus, lim  x does not exist in R. Determine if the limit is +∞ or −∞.
 
x→−∞ 4 5 
+ 2
x x
Since x → −∞, consider a very small negative real number x. Let x = −104 . Then
4 5 4 5
4
+ 4 2
= − 4 + 6 < 0.
−10 (−10 ) 10 10
Hence,
   
2 4 5
lim − 3 < 0 and + → 0 through negative values.
x→−∞ x x x2
By Theorem 5.9(iv),
2
 
−3
lim  x  = +∞.
 
x→−∞ 4 5
+ 2
x x
Therefore,
2


2x −3x2 − 3
lim = lim  x = +∞. 
 
x→−∞ 4x + 5 x→−∞ 4 5 
+ 2
x x

Exercises 6.11 Evaluate the following limits. When appropriate, indicate the limit theorems
being applied.
6x − 4 x3 2x2 − 3x
1. lim 2. lim 2 3. lim
x→−∞ 3x + 1 x→+∞ x + 2 x→+∞ x + 5

5x3 + 7 5x3 + 7 x2 + 2
4. lim 5. lim 6. lim
x→−∞ 4x2 + 1 x→+∞ 4x2 + 1 x→+∞ x + 2

x2 + 2
7. lim
x→+∞ x3

7 Continuity of a Function at a Real Number

In our discussion of the limit of a function, we pointed out that if lim f (x) exists, its value is not
x→a
necessarily equal to f (a), the value of the function at the real number a. In fact, f (a) may be
undefined. If both f (a) and lim f (x) exists and are equal, then f is continuous at a. We state the
x→a
following definition.
Definition 7.1 The function f is said to be continuous at the real number a if the following three
conditions are satisfied
(i) f (a) exists;
(ii) lim f (x) exists;
x→a
(iii) lim f (x) = f (a).
x→a

If one or more of these three conditions fails to hold at a, then the functiion is said to be
discontinuous at a. Geometrically, a function f is discontinuous at a real number a if there a
break or cut in the graph of y = f (x) at x = a.

If f is discontinuous at a real number a but lim f (x) exists, then either f (a) does not exist or
x→a
lim f (x) 6= f (a). This is called a removable discontinuity. Otherwise, it is called an essential
x→a
discontinuuity.

26
Example 7.2 Determine if the function f (x) = x + 2 is continuous at x = 2.

Solution: (i) f (2) = 2 + 2 = 4.

(ii) lim (x + 2) = 2 + 2 = 4.
x→2
(iii) Hence, lim (x + 2) = f (2).
x→2
Therefore, f is continuous at x = 2. 
x
Example 7.3 Determine whether or not the function f (x) = is continuous at x = 2. If it is
x−2
discontinuous at x = 2, determine if the discontinuity is removable or essential.

2 2
Solution: (i) f (2) = = . Hence, f (2) does not exist.
2−2 0
Therefore, f is discontinuous at x = 2.
x
(ii) Evaluate lim .
x→2 x − 2

lim x = 2 and lim (x − 2) = 2 − 2 = 0.

x→2 x→2
x
Hence, lim does not exist.
x→2 x − 2

Therefore, the discontinuity of f at x = 2 is essential. 

x2 − 4
Example 7.4 Determine if the function f (x) = is continuous at x = 2. If it is discontinuous
x−2
at x = 2, determine if the discontinuity is removable or essential.

22 − 4 0
Solution: (i) f (2) = = . Hence, f (2) does not exist.
2−2 0
Therefore, f is discontinuous at x = 2.

x2 − 4
(ii) Evaluate lim .
x→2 x − 2

lim (x2 − 4) = 22 − 4 = 0 and lim (x − 2) = 2 − 2 = 0.

x→2 x→2

If x 6= 2, then
x2 − 4 (x + 2)(x − 2)
= = x + 2.
x−2 x−2
We have

lim (x + 2) = 2 + 2 = 4.
x→2

Hence,
x2 − 4
lim = lim (x + 2) = 4.
x→2 x − 2 x→2

Therefore, the discontinuity of f at x = 2 is removable. 

Example 7.5 Determine if the function

 2
x − 4
, if x 6= 2
f (x) = x − 2
0, if x = 2


27
is continuous at x = 2. If it is discontinuous at x = 2, determine if the discontinuity is removable
or essential.

Solution: (i) By the definition of f , f (2) = 0.

x2 − 4
(ii) Evaluate lim .
x→2 x − 2

lim (x2 − 4) = 22 − 4 = 0 and lim (x − 2) = 2 − 2 = 0.

x→2 x→2

If x 6= 2, then
x2 − 4 (x + 2)(x − 2)
= = x + 2.
x−2 x−2
We have
lim (x + 2) = 2 + 2 = 4.
x→2

Thus,
x2 − 4
lim = lim (x + 2) = 4.
x→2 x − 2 x→2

x2 − 4
(iii) lim 6= f (2).
x→2 x − 2

Therefore, f is discontinuous at x = 2. The discontinuity of f at x = 2 is removable. 

Example 7.6 Determine if the function

 2
x − 4
, if x 6= 2
f (x) = x − 2
4, if x = 2


is continuous at x = 2. If it is discontinuous at x = 2, determine if the discontinuity is removable

or essential.

Solution: (i) By the definition of f , f (2) = 4.

x2 − 4
(ii) Evaluate lim .
x→2 x − 2

lim (x2 − 4) = 22 − 4 = 0 and lim (x − 2) = 2 − 2 = 0.

x→2 x→2

If x 6= 2, then
x2 − 4 (x + 2)(x − 2)
= = x + 2.
x−2 x−2
We have
lim (x + 2) = 2 + 2 = 4.
x→2

Thus,
x2 − 4
lim = lim (x + 2) = 4.
x→2 x − 2 x→2

x2 − 4
(iii) lim = 4 = f (2).
x→2 x − 2

Therefore, f is continuous at x = 2. 

28
Example 7.7 Determine if the function

5 + x,
 if x ≤ −2
f (x) = 2 − x, if −2 < x ≤ 2

4 − x2 , if x = 2


is continuous at x = −2. If it is discontinuous, determine if the discontinuity is removable or

essential.
Solution:
(i) If x ≤ −2, then f (x) = 5 + x. Thus, f (−2) = 5 − 2 = 3.

(ii) Evaluate lim f (x).

x→−2

lim f (x) = lim (5 + x) = 3 and lim f (x) = lim (2 − x) = 4.

x→−2− x→−2− x→−2+ x→−2+

Thus, lim f (x) 6= lim f (x). Hence, lim f (x) does not exist.
x→−2− x→−2+ x→−2

Therefore, f is discontinuous at x = −2. The discontinuity of f at x = −2 is essential.

Exercises:

Determine if the given function is continuous at an indicated number a. If it is discontinuous,

determine if the
 discontinuity is removable or essential. Sketch the graph of the function.
 5 , if x 6= 4
1. f (x) = x − 4 ; at x = 4.
2, if x = 4

x − 1, if x < 1

2. f (x) = 1, if x = 1 ; at x = 1.

1 − x, if 1 < x


 2
x + x − 6
, if x 6= −3
3. f (x) = x+3 ; at x = −3.
1, if x = −3



5 + x, if x < −3
√

4. f (x) = 9 − x , if −3 ≤ x ≤ 3 ; at x = −3 and at x = 3.
2

5 − x, if 3 < x


(
x + 2, if x ≤ 0
5. f (x) = ; at x = 0.
x2 + 2, if 0 < x
√
 x + 1 , if x 6= 0

6. f (x) = x ; at x = 0.
1,

if x = 0
2
 3
 x + 1 if x 6= −1
7. f (x) = , ; at x = −1.
−1, if x = −1


x2 +4x+3
8. f (x) = x+3 ; at x = −3.

x+1
9. f (x) = ; at x = − 52 .
2x + 5

29
Limits of Transcendental Functions

8 Limits Involving Sine and Cosine Functions

sin x
Theorem 8.1 lim = 1.
x→0 x

1 − cos x
Theorem 8.2 lim = 0.
x→0 x
Theorem 8.3 Let a be any real number. Then
(i) lim sin x = sin a.
x→a
(ii) lim cos x = cos a.
x→a

sin x
Example 8.4 Evaluate lim .
x→0 4x
Solution:

lim sin x = sin 0 = 0 and lim 4x = 0.

x→0 x→0

For all x 6= 0,
sin x 1 sin x
= · .
4x 4 x
By Theorem 8.1,
sin x
lim = 1.
x→0 x

Thus,
   
1 sin x 1 sin x 1 1
lim · = lim = ·1= .
x→0 4 x 4 x→0 x 4 4
Therefore,
 
sin x 1 sin x 1
lim = lim · = . 
x→0 4x x→0 4 x 4

sin2 x
Example 8.5 Evaluate lim .
x→0 x
Solution:

lim sin2 x = 0 and lim x = 0.

x→0 x→0

For all x 6= 0,
sin2 x sin x
= sin x · .
x x
We have

lim sin x = 0.
x→0

By Theorem 8.1,
sin x
lim = 1.
x→0 x

30
Hence,
   
sin x sin x
lim sin x · = ( lim sin x) lim = 0 · 1 = 0.
x→0 x x→0 x→0 x

Therefore,
sin2 x
 
sin x
lim = lim sin x · = 0. 
x→0 x x→0 x

1 − cos x
Example 8.6 Evaluate lim .
x→0 sin x
Solution:

lim (1 − cos x) = 0 and lim sin x = sin 0 = 0.

x→0 x→0

For all x 6= 0,
1 − cos x
1 − cos x x
= .
sin x sin x
x
By Theorem 8.2,
1 − cos x
lim =0
x→0 x
and by Theorem 8.1,
sin x
lim = 1.
x→0 x

Hence,
1 − cos x 1 − cos x
 
lim 0
lim 
 x  x→0
= x = = 0.
x→0 sin x  sin x 1
lim
x x→0 x
Therefore,
1 − cos x
 
1 − cos x x
lim = lim   = 0. 
 
x→0 sin x x→0 sin x
x

Exercises 8.7 Evaluate the limit if it exists.

3x sin x 1 − cos2 x
1. lim 2. lim 3. lim
x→0 sin x x→0 2x2 + 3x x→0 2x2
sin3 x 1 − cos x
4. lim 5. lim
x→0 x2 x→0 x2

31
9 Limits and Continuity of Trigonometric Functions

Theorem 9.1 Let f (x) = tan x. Then

(i) lim tan x = tan a, if a 6= π2 + πk, for all k ∈ Z.
x→a
π
(ii) lim tan x = −∞, if a = 2 + πk, for all k ∈ Z.
x→a+
(iii) lim tan x = +∞, if a = π2 + πk, for all k ∈ Z.
x→a−

Corollary 9.2 Let f (x) = tan x. Then

(i) lim tan x = tan 0 = 0.
x→0
(ii) lim tan x = −∞.
x→ π2 +
(iii) lim tan x = +∞.
x→ π2 −
(iv) limπ tan x does not exist.
x→ 2
(v) lim tan x = −∞.
x→− π2 +
(vi) lim tan x = +∞.
x→− π2 −
(vii) limπ tan x does not exist.
x→− 2

Theorem 9.3 Let f (x) = cot x. Then

(i) lim cot x = cot a, if a 6= πk, for all k ∈ Z.
x→a
(ii) lim cot x = +∞, if a = πk, for all k ∈ Z.
x→a+
(iii) lim cot x = −∞, if a = πk, for all k ∈ Z.
x→a−

Corollary 9.4 Let f (x) = cot x. Then

π
(i) limπ cot x = cot = 0.
x→ 2 2
(ii) lim cot x = +∞.
x→0+
(iii) lim cot x = −∞.
x→0−
(iv) lim cot x does not exist.
x→0
(v) lim cot x = +∞.
x→π +
(vi) lim cot x = −∞.
x→π −
(vii) lim cot x does not exist.
x→π

Theorem 9.5 Let f (x) = sec x. Then

(i) lim sec x = sec a, if a 6= π2 + πk, for all k ∈ Z.
x→a
π
(ii) lim sec x = −∞, if a = 2 + 2πk, for all k ∈ Z.
x→a+
(iii) lim sec x = +∞, if a = − π2 + 2πk, for all k ∈ Z.
x→a+
π
(iv) lim sec x = +∞, if a = 2 + 2πk, for all k ∈ Z.
x→a−
(v) lim sec x = −∞, if a = − π2 + 2πk, for all k ∈ Z.
x→a−

Corollary 9.6 Let f (x) = sec x. Then

(i) lim sec x = sec 0 = 1.
x→0
(ii) lim sec x = −∞.
x→ π2 +
(iii) lim sec x = +∞.
x→ π2 −

32
(iv) limπ sec x does not exist.
x→ 2
(v) lim sec x = +∞.
x→− π2 +
(vi) lim sec x = −∞.
x→− π2 −
(vii) limπ sec x does not exist.
x→− 2

Theorem 9.7 Let f (x) = csc x. Then

(i) lim csc x = csc a, if a 6= πk, for all k ∈ Z.
x→a
(ii) lim csc x = +∞, if a = 2πk, for all k ∈ Z.
x→a+
(iii) lim csc x = −∞, if a = 2πk, for all k ∈ Z.
x→a−
(iv) lim csc x = −∞, if a = π(2k + 1), for all k ∈ Z.
x→a+
(v) lim csc x = +∞, if a = π(2k + 1), for all k ∈ Z.
x→a−

Corollary 9.8 Let f (x) = csc x. Then

π
(i) limπ csc x = csc = 1.
x→ 2 2
(ii) lim csc x = +∞.
x→0+
(iii) lim csc x = −∞.
x→0−
(iv) lim csc x does not exist.
x→0
(v) lim csc x = −∞.
x→π +
(vi) lim csc x = +∞.
x→π −
(vii) lim csc x does not exist.
x→π

Example 9.9 Evaluate lim (tan x + sec x).

x→π

Solution:

lim tan x = tan π = 0 and lim sec x = sec π = −1.

x→π x→π

Therefore,

lim (tan x + sec x) = lim tan x + lim sec x

x→π x→π x→π
=0−1
= −1. 

1
Example 9.10 Evaluate lim cos x.
x→0 x2

Solution:
1
lim = +∞ and lim cos x = cos 0 = 1.
x→0 x2 x→0

Hence,
1
lim cos x = +∞. 
x→0 x2

33
Example 9.11 Evaluate lim (cot x + sec x).
x→π −

Solution:
lim cot x = −∞ and lim sec x = sec π = −1.
x→π − x→π −

Therefore,
lim (cot x + sec x) = −∞. 
x→π −

Example 9.12 Evaluate limπ (cot x csc x).

x→ 2

Solution:
π π
limπ cot x = cot = 0 and limπ csc x = csc = 1.
x→ 2 2 x→ 2 2
Therefore,
! !
lim cot x sec x = lim cot x lim sec x = 0 · 1 = 0. 
x→ π2 x→ π2 x→ π2

Theorem 9.13 The sine and cosine functions are continuous on their domain, the set R of real
numbers.

Theorem 9.14 The tangent and secant functions are continuous on their domain, the set
n π o
x ∈ R : x 6= + πk, k ∈ Z
2
.

Theorem 9.15 The cotangent and cosecant functions are continuous on their domain, the set
{x ∈ R : x 6= πk, k ∈ Z}.

Theorem 9.16 (Limit of a Composite Function) Let f and g be functions such that
lim g(x) = b
x→a

and
f is continuous at b, that is, lim f (x) = f (b).
x→b

Then
lim (f ◦ g)(x) = f (b)
x→a

or, equivalently,
lim f (g(x)) = f ( lim g(x)).
x→a x→a

Example 9.17 Evaluate lim sin(3x − 3).

x→1

Solution: Let
f (x) = sin x and g(x) = 3x − 3.
Then
lim (3x − 3) = 0.
x→1

34
Since 0 ∈ D(f ),

f (x) = sin x is continuous at 0.

Therefore, by Theorem 9.16,

h i
lim sin(3x − 3) = sin lim (3x − 3) = sin 0 = 0. 
x→1 x→1

Example 9.18 Evaluate lim cos(x2 − 5).

x→5

Solution: Let

f (x) = cos x and g(x) = x2 − 5.

Then

lim (x2 − 5) = 0.
x→5

Since 0 ∈ D(f ),

f (x) = cos x is continuous at 0.

Therefore, by Theorem 9.16,

h i
lim cos(x2 − 5) = cos lim (x2 − 5) = cos 0 = 1. 
x→5 x→5

Example 9.19 Evaluate lim tan(π + x2 ).

x→0

Solution: Let

f (x) = tan x and g(x) = π + x2 .

Then

lim (π + x2 ) = π.
x→0

Since π ∈ D(f ),

f (x) = tan x is continuous at π.

Therefore, by Theorem 9.16,

h i
lim tan(π + x2 ) = tan lim (π + x2 ) = tan π = 0. 
x→0 x→0

Example 9.20 Evaluate limπ sec(sin x − cos x).

x→ 4

Solution: Let

f (x) = sec x and g(x) = sin x − cos x.

Then
√ √
2 2
lim (sin x − cos x) = − = 0.
x→ π4 2 2

Since 0 ∈ D(f ),

f (x) = sec x is continuous at 0.

Therefore, by Theorem 9.16,

35
 " #
lim sec(sin x − cos x) = sec limπ (sin x − cos x) = sec 0 = 1. 
x→ π4 x→ 4

π 
2
Example 9.21 Evaluate lim cot − 2x + x .
x→2 2
Solution: Let
π
f (x) = cot x and g(x) = − 2x + x2 .
2
Then
π 
lim − 2x + x2 = π.
x→2 2
π
Since ∈ D(f ),
2
π
f (x) = cot x is continuous at .
2
Therefore, by Theorem 9.16,
π  h π i π
lim cot − 2x + x2 = cot lim − 2x + x2 = cot = 0. 
x→2 2 x→2 2 2

Exercises 9.22 Evaluate the following limit if it exists.

√
sin 2x x2 + π 2
1. lim 2. lim csc
x→0 x x→0 2
sec x
3. lim (cos 2x − sin x) 4. lim
x→π + x→− π2 − csc x
sin πx
5. lim 2 6. limπ tan(cos x − sin x)
x→1 x − cos πx x→ 4

7. lim sec(π − 2x) 8. limπ cot(cos x + sin x)

x→π x→ 4

10 Limits and Continuity of Logarithmic and Exponential Functions

Theorem 10.1 If f (x) = ln x, then

(i) D(f ) = R+ and R(f ) = R.
(ii) lim ln x = ln a, for all a ∈ R+ ,
x→a
(iii) lim ln x = +∞,
x→+∞
(iv) lim ln x = −∞.
x→0+

Theorem 10.2 The logarithmic function is continuous on its domain, the set of all positive real
numbers.

36
Example 10.3 Evaluate lim ln(x2 − 2x − 4).
x→4

Solution: Let

f (x) = ln x and g(x) = x2 − 2x − 4

Then

lim (x2 − 2x − 4) = 4.
x→4

Since 4 ∈ D(f ),

f (x) = ln x is continuous at 4.

Therefore, by Theorem 9.16,

h i
lim ln(x2 − 2x − 4) = ln lim (x2 − 2x − 4) = ln 4. 
x→4 x→4

Example 10.4 Evaluate lim ln cos x.

x→0

Solution: Let

f (x) = ln x and g(x) = cos x.

Then

lim cos x = cos 0 = 1.

x→0

Since 1 ∈ D(f ),

f (x) = ln x is continuous at 1.

Therefore, by Theorem 9.16,

 
lim ln cos2 x = ln lim cos2 x = ln 1 = 0. 
x→0 x→0

Example 10.5 Evaluate lim ln(sec x + tan x).

x→0+

Solution: Let

f (x) = ln x and g(x) = sec x + tan x.

Then

lim (sec x + tan x) = 1 + 0 = 1.

x→0+

Since 1 ∈ D(f ),

f (x) = ln x is continuous at 1.

Therefore, by Theorem 9.16,

 
lim ln(sec x + tan x) = ln lim (sec x + tan x) = ln 1 = 0. 
x→0+ x→0+

Theorem 10.6 If f (x) = ex , then

(i) D(f ) = R and R(f ) = R+ (ii) lim ex = ea , for all a ∈ R,
x→a
(iii) lim ex = +∞,
x→+∞
(iv) lim ex = 0.
x→−∞

37
Theorem 10.7 The exponential function is continuous on its domain, the set R of real numbers.
2 +2x−4
Example 10.8 Evaluate lim ex .
x→2

Solution: Let

f (x) = ex and g(x) = x2 + 2x − 4

Then

lim (x2 + 2x − 4) = 4.
x→2

Since 4 ∈ D(f ),

f (x) = ex is continuous at 4.

Therefore, by Theorem 9.16,

2 +2x−4 lim (x2 + 2x − 4)

lim ex = ex→2 = e4 . 
x→2
√
x2 +2x−4
Example 10.9 Evaluate lim e .
x→2

Solution: Let
p
f (x) = ex and g(x) = x2 + 2x − 4

Then
p
lim x2 + 2x − 4 = 2.
x→2

Since 2 ∈ D(f ),

f (x) = ex is continuous at 2.

Therefore, by Theorem 9.16,

p
√
x2 +2x−4
lim x2 + 2x − 4
lim e = ex→2 = e2 . 
x→2

2
Example 10.10 Evaluate lim esin x .
x→0

Solution: Let

f (x) = ex and g(x) = sin2 x.

Then

lim sin2 x = 0.
x→0

Since 0 ∈ D(f ),

f (x) = ex is continuous at 0.

Therefore, by Theorem 9.16,

sin2 x
lim sin2 x
lim e = ex→0 = e0 = 1. 
x→0

Example 10.11 Evaluate lim ecsc x+cot x .

x→ π2 +

38
Solution: Let

f (x) = ex and g(x) = csc x + cot x.

Then

lim (csc x + cot x) = 1 + 0 = 1.

x→ π2 +

Since 1 ∈ D(f ),

f (x) = ex is continuous at 1.

Therefore, by Theorem 9.16,

lim (csc x + cot x)
π+
lim esec x+tan x = ex→ 2 = e1 = e. 
x→ π2 +

11 Limits and Continuity of Inverse Trigonometric Functions

Theorem 11.1 If f (x) = arcsinx, then

(i) D(f ) = [−1, 1] and R(f ) = − π2 , π2 ,
(ii) lim arcsin x = arcsin a, for all a ∈ (−1, 1),
x→a
π
(iii) lim arcsin x = ,
x→1 − 2
π
(iv) lim arcsin x = − .
x→−1+ 2

Theorem 11.2 The inverse sine function is continuous on its domain, the closed interval [−1, 1].

Example 11.3 Evaluate lim arcsin(x2 − 1).

x→1

Solution: Let

f (x) = arcsin x and g(x) = x2 − 1

Then

lim (x2 − 1) = 0.
x→1

Since 0 ∈ D(f ),

f (x) = arcsin x is continuous at 0.

Therefore, by Theorem 9.16,

 
lim arcsin(x2 − 1) = arcsin lim = arcsin 0 = 0. 
x→1 x→1

Example 11.4 Evaluate lim arcsin ex .

x→0

Solution: Let

f (x) = arcsin x and g(x) = ex

Then

39
 lim ex = e0 = 1.
x→0

Since 1 ∈ D(f ),

f (x) = arcsin x is continuous at 1.

Therefore, by Theorem 9.16,

x

x
 π
lim arcsin e = arcsin lim e = arcsin 1 = .
x→0 x→0 2
Theorem 11.5 If f (x) = arccos x, then
(i) D(f ) = [−1, 1] and R(f ) = [0, π],
(ii) lim arccos x = arccos a, for all a ∈ (−1, 1),
x→a
(iii) lim arccos x = 0,
x→1−
(iv) lim arccos x = π.
x→−1+

Theorem 11.6 The inverse cosine function is continuous on its domain, the closed interval [−1, 1].

Example 11.7 Evaluate lim arccos(x2 + x).

x→0

Solution: Let

f (x) = arccos x and g(x) = x2 + x.

Then

lim (x2 + x = 0.
x→0

Since 0 ∈ D(f ),

f (x) = arccos x is continuous at 0.

Therefore, by Theorem 9.16

 
lim arccos(x2 + x) = arccos lim (x2 + x) = arccos 0 = 1. 
x→0 x→0

Example 11.8 Evaluate lim arccos ex .

x→0

Solution: Let

f (x) = arccos x and g(x) = ex .

Then

lim ex = 1.
x→0

Since 0 ∈ D(f ),

f (x) = arccos x is continuous at 0.

Therefore, by Theorem 9.16,

 
lim arccos ex = arccos lim ex = arccos 1 = 0. 
x→0 x→0

Example 11.9 Evaluate lim arccos ln x.

x→1

Solution: Let

40
 f (x) = arccos x and g(x) = ln x

Then

lim ln x = 0.
x→1

Since 0 ∈ D(f ),

f (x) = arccos x is continuous at 0.

Therefore, by Theorem 9.16,

  π
lim arccos ln x = arccos lim ln x = arccos 0 = . 
x→1 x→1 2
Theorem 11.10 If f (x) =  arctan x, then
π π
(i) D(f ) = R and R(f ) = − , ,
2 2
(ii) lim arctan x = arctan a, for all a ∈ R,
x→a
π
(iii) lim arctan x = ,
x→+∞ 2
π
(iv) lim arctan x = − .
x→−∞ 2
Theorem 11.11 The inverse tangent function is continuous on its domain, the set of all real
numbers.

Example 11.12 Evaluate limπ arctan (2 cos x).

x→ 6

Solution: Let

f (x) = arctan x and g(x) = 2 cos x.

Then
√
π 3 √
limπ cos x = 2 cos = 2 · = 3.
x→ 6 6 2
√
Since 3 ∈ D(f ),
√
f (x) = arctan x is continuous at 3.

Therefore, by Theorem 9.16,

!
√ π
limπ arctan(2 cos x) = arctan limπ 2 cos x = arctan 3 = . 
x→ 6 x→ 6 3

1
Example 11.13 Evaluate lim arctan .
x→+∞ x
Solution: Let
1
f (x) = arctan x and g(x) = .
x
Then
1
lim = 0.
x→+∞ x

Since 0 ∈ D(f ),

f (x) = arctan x is continuous at 0.

41
Therefore, by Theorem 9.16,
 
1 1
lim arctan = arctan lim = arctan 0 = 0. 
x→+∞ x x→+∞ x

Theorem 11.14 If f (x) = arccot x, then

(i) D(f ) = R and R(f ) = (0, π),
(ii) lim arccot x = arccot a, for all a ∈ R,
x→a
(iii) lim arccot x = 0,
x→+∞
(iv) lim arccot x = π.
x→−∞

Theorem 11.15 The inverse cotangent function is continuous on its domain, the set of real
numbers.

Example 11.16 Evaluate lim arccot(x − 1).

x→0

Solution: Let
f (x) = arccot x and g(x) = x − 1.
Then
lim (x − 1) = −1.
x→0

Since −1 ∈ D(f ),
f (x) = arccot x is continuous at −1.
Therefore, by Theorem 9.16,
  π
lim arccot(x − 1) = arccot lim (x − 1) = arccot(−1) = − . 
x→0 x→0 4
Example 11.17 Evaluate lim arccot(x2 − 1).
x→1

Solution: Let
f (x) = arccot x and g(x) = x2 − 1.
Then
lim (x2 − 1) = 0.
x→1

Since 0 ∈ D(f ),
f (x) = arccot x is continuous at 0.
Therefore, by Theorem 9.16,
  π
lim arccot(x2 − 1) = arccot lim (x2 − 1) = arccot0 = − . 
x→1 x→1 2
Theorem 11.18 If f (x) = arcsec x, then h π h π
(i) D(f ) = (−∞, −1] ∪ [1, +∞) and R(f ) = −π, − ∪ 0, ,
2 2
(ii) lim arcsec x = arcsec a, for all a ∈ (−∞, −1) ∪ (1, +∞),
x→a
(iii) lim arcsec x = 0,
x→1+
(iv) lim arcsec x = −π,
x→−1−
π
(v) lim arcsec x = ,
x→+∞ 2
π
(vi) lim arcsec x = − .
x→−∞ 2

42
Theorem 11.19 The inverse secant function is continuous on its domain, the interval (−∞, −1] ∪
[1, +∞).

Example 11.20 Evaluate lim arcsec(2x − 4).

x→3

Solution: Let

f (x) = arcsec x, and g(x) = 2x − 4.

Then

lim (2x − 4) = 2.
x→3

Since 2 ∈ D(g),

g(x) = arcsec x is continuous at 2.

By Theorem 9.16,
h i π
lim arcsec(2x − 4) = arcsec lim (2x − 4) = arcsec 2 = . 
x→3 x→3 3
Example 11.21 Evaluate lim arcsec (ex − 1).
x→−∞

Solution: Let

f (x) = arcsec x and g(x) = ex − 1.

Then

lim (ex − 1) = 0 − 1 = −1.

x→−∞

Since −1 ∈ D(f ),

f (x) = arcsec x is continuous at −1.

Therefore, by Theorem 9.16,

 
x x
lim arcsec (e − 1) = arcsec lim (e − 1) = arcsec (−1) = −π. 
x→−∞ x→−∞

Theorem 11.22 If f (x) = arccsc x, then  πi  πi

(i) D(f ) = (−∞, −1] ∪ [1, +∞) and R(f ) = −π, − ∪ 0, ,
2 2
(ii) lim arccsc x = arccsc a, for all a ∈ (−∞, −1) ∪ (1, +∞),
x→a
π
(iii) lim arccsc x = ,
x→1 + 2
π
(iv) lim arccsc x = − ,
x→−1− 2
(v) lim arccsc x = 0,
x→+∞
(vi) lim arccsc x = −π.
x→−∞

Theorem 11.23 The inverse cosecant function is continuous on its domain, the interval (−∞, −1]∪
[1, +∞).

Example 11.24 Evaluate lim arccsc(x2 + 2).

x→0

Solution: Let

f (x) = arccsc x and g(x) = x2 + 2.

43
Then

lim (x2 + 2) = 2.
x→0

Since 2 ∈ D(f ),

f (x) = arccsc x is continuous at 2.

Therefore, by Theorem 9.16,

h i π
lim arccsc(x2 + 2) = arccsc lim (x2 + 2) = arccsc2 = . 
x→0 x→0 6
√
Example 11.25 Evaluate lim arccsc( 2 − x).
x→0

Solution: Let
√
f (x) = arccsc x and g(x) = 2 − x.

Then
√ √
lim ( 2 − x) = 2.
x→0
√
Since 2 ∈ D(f ),
√
f (x) = arccsc x is continuous at 2.

Therefore, by Theorem 9.16,

√ h √ i √ π
lim arccsc( 2 − x) = arccsc lim ( 2 − x) = arccsc 2 = . 
x→0 x→0 4

Chapter Exercises
Exercises 11.26 Evaluate the following limits.

x3 + 8
1. lim (x2 + 3x + 4) 2. lim
x→2 x→−2 x + 2
(
x2 − 4 x + 1, if x ≤ −1
3. lim 4. f (x) = ; find lim f (x).
x→2+ x2 − 5x + 6 1, if −1 < x x→−1

x+2 2
x +5
5. lim 6. lim 3
x→2− x2 − 4 x→+∞ x − 2x + 4

1
x2 + 2

 , if x ≤ 1
7. lim 8. f (x) = x + 1 ; at x = 1.
x→−∞ x3 1

 , if 1 < x
3−x
3x x
9. lim 10. lim
x→0 cos x x→0 cos x
cos x − sin x
11. limπ
x→ 4 tan x

44