Fuel cell electric vehicle Savitribai Phule Pune

University

1. INTRODUCTION

The statistical analysis with the current rate of discovery of new oil reserves and the
consumption rate reports that the world oil reserve will be depleted by 2049. Fossil fuels take
millions of years to form and reserves are being depleted much faster than new ones are being
made. The depletion of fossil fuel resources and the rise in emissions made the researchers to
think about an alternative source for transport application

1.1 Need

The large number of auto mobiles in use around the world has caused many serious problems in
today’s global environment, such as air pollution, global warming, and the rapid depletion of
the petroleum resources. The greenhouse gas emission reduction and fuel economy improvement
become more and more urgent. Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEVs), Electric Vehicles (EVs), Fuel
Cell Electric Vehicles (FCEVs) and Fuel Cell Hybrid Electric Vehicles (FCHEVs) have been
proposed to replace conventional vehicles in the near future.

1.2 FCEV basic

A FCEV uses a fuel cell and an electric motor as its propulsion system. The onboard fuel cell
directly converts chemical energy to electric energy. A hydrogen fuel cell is the most popular
type that has been used in fuel cell vehicles. It consumes hydrogen and oxygen as fuels and only
produces water vapor and heat as exhaust products. Therefore a hydrogen fuel cell vehicle
produces zero tailpipe greenhouse gas (GHG) emission. Since hydrogen can be produced in
several methods such as steam methane reforming and electrolysis of water, the adoption of
FCEVs would significantly reduce a country’s dependence on foreign oil. Unlike battery electric
vehicles which has limited ranges and requires prolonged charging time, FCEVs can be refilled
in the matter of minutes and have ranges up to several hundred miles.

FCEVs have been in and out of the spotlight of the auto industry a couple of times and this
technology has been considered by many skeptics to be the “technology in the distant future”.
Despite numerous technical and political obstacles during its development, FCEVs have recently

Department of mechanical engineering, Sinhgad institute of technology, lonavala

1
 Fuel cell electric vehicle Savitribai Phule Pune
University

regained public attention with the announcements of their commercialization in 2015 by two
major automakers. To better understand the future of the FCEV, and its role in the electric
vehicle arena, it is important to look at this technology from both historical and technical points
of view.

1.3 History
Since the invention in 1838, fuel cells had been used in various applications such as in
spacecraft, submarine, and stationary power plants. The first fuel cell powered vehicle was
produced by General Motors (GM) in 1966, named GMC Electrovan.1 It was the result of two
year development effort lead by Dr. Craig Marks and utilized 32 fuel cell modules with a
continuous output of 32 kW and a peak power of 160 kW. The fuel used was pure liquid
hydrogen and liquid oxygen. The Electrovan achieved a top speed of 70 MPH and had a range of
120 miles. However, the whole fuel cell system turned the 6-seat van into a 2-seater due to the
large hydrogen and oxygen tanks along with the piping. Figure 1.1 shows an illustration of its
internal structure. After test driving in the GM facility and being shown off to journalists, the
project was discontinued due to the prohibitive cost and lack of hydrogen infrastructure at that
time.

Almost thirty years later, the fuel cell technology was revisited by automakers. Daimler-Benz
introduced the NECAR 1-the New Electric Car Number 1- to the public in 1994.2 The 50 kW
Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM) fuel cell was manufactured by Ballard which has become
one of the leading PEM fuel cell manufacturers. The NECAR-1 utilized a compressed hydrogen
tank that stored the gas at 300 bar and achieved a top speed of 56 mph and range of 81 miles.
The fuel cell and the storage system, like the GM Electrovan, also took up the entire cargo space
and left only two-seat space in the van. NECAR-2, introduced two years later was featured a fuel
cell system one third of the weight of its predecessor.

During 1996 to 1999, several major automakers such as Toyota, GM, Mazda, Ford, Honda,
Nissan, and Volkswagen also brought fuel cell vehicles projects to fruition. They employed fuel

Department of mechanical engineering, Sinhgad institute of technology, lonavala

2
 Fuel cell electric vehicle Savitribai Phule Pune
University

cells ranging in power from 10 to 75 kW and demonstrated vehicle ranges of up to 310 miles.
Many of these auto companies had set goals to commercialize fuel cell vehicles in 2003-2004
time frame, however, none of these goals were realized.

In 2002, Toyota launched the world’s first limited leasing of its fuel cell hybrid vehicle (called
FCHV) in the USA and Japan. Its power train comprised a 90 kW fuel cell and a nickel-metal
hybrid battery. At low speed the FCHV runs on battery alone. The fuel cell and battery supplied
power in tandem when higher performance was required. The combined range of the fuel cell
and battery was 155 miles. Since then, eight major automakers have put in significant efforts to
test the real-world performance of the fuel cell vehicles.

Figure 1.1 Illustration of the GM 1966 [1]

Department of mechanical engineering, Sinhgad institute of technology, lonavala

3
 Fuel cell electric vehicle Savitribai Phule Pune
University

1.4 Outline

 Chapter 1 gives the brief introduction about the fuel cell electric vehicle. In this the need
of FCEV is explained. Basics of a FCEV and its operating principle are given. History
about the FCEV is mentioned in which right from the invention of first FCEV till the
development up till now are present.

 Chapter 2 contains literature survey in which the contents of research papers are given in
short. All the papers are referred and the data required is taken from them.

 Chapter 3 contains the information about various components that are used in a FCEV.
The components include hydrogen cylinders, fuel cell stack, battery etc

 Chapter 4 contains working of a FCEV. How the propulsion of a FCEV takes place is
given in this chapter.

 Chapter 5 contains analysis of major FCEV models. A graphical representation of top ten
automakers with the most FCEV models, the historical FCEV model development trend,
the power train configurations of different FCEV models and the power train
configurations of different FCEV models is given.

 Chapter 6 contains case study in which real world demonstration projects of fuel cell
vehicles and their specifications are given in tabular form. Specifications of the 2015
Hyundai and Toyota FCEVs are also given. Timeline of major events in fuel cell vehicle
developments is given in pictorial form.

 Chapter 7 contains summary in which all the points discussed above are summarized.

 Chapter 8 contains references.

Department of mechanical engineering, Sinhgad institute of technology, lonavala

4
 Fuel cell electric vehicle Savitribai Phule Pune
University

2 LITERATURE SURVEY

‘Dr. Paul Brooker’ from Florida Solar Energy Center presented a report on “Analysis of fuel cell
vehicle”. In This report they investigated over a hundred FCEV models that have been developed
in the past fifty years. A historic timeline of FCEV development was presented. The fuel cell
power train configurations and fuel cell sizes of these FCEV models were statistically studied.

‘Mr. M. Karthik’ and, Department of EEE, Kongu Engineering College Erode, India. Presented a
paper on “Dynamic Neural Network Based Parametric Modeling of PEM Fuel Cell System for
Electric Vehicle Applications”. In this paper, the modeling of standalone fuel cell driven electric
vehicle system is discussed. The electric vehicle modeling involves three key aspects such as
energy source, DC-DC converter and vehicle dynamics. In the proposed work, the energy source
is taken as fuel cell (proton-exchange membrane or polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cell
(PEM).

‘M.N. Sid’, presented a paper on “Energy Management and Optimal Control Strategies of Fuel
cell/Super capacitors Hybrid Vehicle”. In this paper the details about the construction and
working of fuel cell and super capacitor are given. An energy management strategy (EMS) based
on optimal control theory is applied to a hybrid vehicle propelled by fuel cell and super
capacitors pack. In order to show the effectiveness of this strategy, another EMS based on
thermostat method is proposed and compared with the first one. Firstly, the power sources used
in this study are presented with the electrical model of each one, and the hybrid architecture is
given. Then, the EMS based on optimal control is expressed, where the minimization of the
hydrogen consumption is its objective as well as the super capacitor state of charge control.
Then, the thermostat method strategy, which is a simple control method based on rules imposed
by the limits of the power sources is applied. These two EMSs have been simulated using
Matlab/Simulink. The results indicate the effectiveness of the energy management based on
optimal control, which leads to improving the fuel consumption and a good control of the
auxiliary source.

Department of mechanical engineering, Sinhgad institute of technology, lonavala

5
 Fuel cell electric vehicle Savitribai Phule Pune
University

‘Hamza Alloui’, Laboratoire Commande des Machines, École Militaire Polytechnique Algiers,
Algeria, Presented a paper on “A Control Strategy Scheme for Fuel Cell-Vehicle Based on
Frequency Separation” in First International Conference on Green Energy ICGE 2014. The paper
presents a control strategy scheme based on frequency-separation for Fuel cell-Battery Hybrid
Electric Vehicle (HEV), using a Fuel cell (FC) as a main energy source, and a battery as an
auxiliary power source. In this strategy a frequency splitter is used for routing the low frequency
content of power demand into the FC and its high frequencies into the battery, taking profit from
the battery as a peak power unit. Details of various types of batteries used in FCEV are given in
this paper.

‘Wang Jian’, Hunan CSR Times Electric Vehicle [Link], Zhuzhou, Hunan. Presented a paper
on “A research of the interlacing-control Boost Converter for fuel cell vehicle”. For meeting the
complex requirement of power control unit (PCU) in fuel cell car, a 36kW interlacing-control
Boost Converter is proposed in this paper. According to the experimental results presented in this
paper, the interlacing-control Boost converter could meet the needs of complex control strategies
of fuel cell vehicle and actual road test.

Department of mechanical engineering, Sinhgad institute of technology, lonavala

6
 Fuel cell electric vehicle Savitribai Phule Pune
University

3. COMPONENTS OF FCEV

The various components of a FCEV power train are as follows.

3.1 Hydrogen Cylinder

The Mirai has two hydrogen tanks with a three-layer structure made of carbon fiber-reinforced
plastic consisting of nylon 6 from Ube Industries and other materials. The tanks store hydrogen
at 70 MPa (10,000 psi). The tanks have a combined weight 87.5 kg.

3.2 Fuel Cell Stack

The new Toyota FC Stack achieves a maximum output of 114 kW (153 hp). Electricity
generation efficiency has been enhanced through the use of 3D fine mesh flow channels. These
channels a world first, according to Toyota is arranged in a fine three-dimensional lattice
structure and enhance the dispersion of air (oxygen), thereby enabling uniform generation of
electricity on cell surfaces. This, in turn, provides a compact size and a high level of
performance, including the stack’s world-leading power output density of 3.1 kW/L (2.2 times
higher than that of the previous Toyota FCHV-adv limited-lease model), or 2.0 kW/kg. Each
stack comprises 370 (single-line stacking) cells, with a cell thickness of 1.34 mm and weight of
102 g. The compact Mirai FC stack generates about 160 times more power than the residential
fuel cells on sale in Japan. The Mirai has a new compact (13-liter), high-efficiency, high-
capacity converter developed to boost power generated in the Toyota FC Stack to 650 volts.

3.2.1 Fuel Cell

A FC is an energy conversion device that directly converts the chemical energy of a fuel
(hydrogen) into electricity. This energy is released whenever hydrogen reacts chemically with
the oxygen of air. The reaction occurs electrochemically and the energy is released as a
combination of low-voltage DC electrical energy and heat. In the literature, Alkaline FC,

Department of mechanical engineering, Sinhgad institute of technology, lonavala

7
 Fuel cell electric vehicle Savitribai Phule Pune
University

Polymer Electrolyte Membrane FC, Direct Methanol FC, Phosphoric Acid FC, Molten
Carbonate FC and Solid Oxide FC can be founded as FC types. The Types of FCs depend mainly
on the type of electrolyte they utilize. The PEMFCs are nowadays the most promising FC type
for automotive use and have been used in most current prototypes . There are four basic elements
of a PEMFC: anode, cathode, electrolyte and catalyst which is a special material that facilitates
the reaction of oxygen and hydrogen and it is typically made of a very thinly platinum powder.
Basically, it is known that hydrogen atom (H) is composed of one electron (e-) and one proton
(H+ ions). Figure 3.1 presents the pressurized hydrogen molecule (H2), where one hydrogen
molecule has two protons and two electrons, entering the FC on the anode side. This gas is
forced through the catalyst by pressure. When a H2 molecule comes in contact with the platinum
on the catalyst, it is split into two protons and two electrons, known as electric current. The
electrons are conducted through the anode, where they make their way through the external
circuit and return to the cathode side of the FC. The chemical reaction at anode side can be
written as follows:

H2 2H+ + 2e-

Meanwhile, on the FC cathode side, a half oxygen molecule (one oxygen atom 2 (1/ 2)O ) is
being forced through the catalyst. The chemical reaction at cathode side can be written as follows

1 O2 + 2H+ + 2e- H2O

2

Combining the anode and cathode reactions, the overall cell reaction is as follows:

1 O2 + H2 H2O + heat + electrical energy

2

Department of mechanical engineering, Sinhgad institute of technology, lonavala

8
 Fuel cell electric vehicle Savitribai Phule Pune
University

Figure 3.1 Fuel cell operation diagram. [3]

3.3 Boost Converter

The output voltage of fuel cell has a high dynamic range, the correlation of output power and
voltage is negative. Because of varying operating mode of vehicle, the fuel cell always provides
a high power in a low output voltage. To meeting the power demand of vehicle and voltage level
of Motor Controller, a DC/DC converter is necessary for a fuel cell vehicle. Figure 3.2 gives the
overview of power system of fuel cell vehicle The resistive load between fuel cell and power
battery can be perfectly matched by DC/DC converter. The introduction of converter not only
benefits the optimization of motor system, but also, prevents the occurrence of voltage surge and
losing control when a braking was applied. To satisfying the mounting demand of high power
supply of fuel cell vehicle, the DC/DC converter is developing towards high power density, high
gain and intelligent controlling direction. In 2009, a 90kW soft switching Boost converter with a
passive resonance, which used by fuel cell bus, was developed by Dianlong Wang and Bojin Qi.
In 2010, a high gain push-pull forward Boost converter was analyzed by ZhiLing Jiang and

Department of mechanical engineering, Sinhgad institute of technology, lonavala

9
 Fuel cell electric vehicle Savitribai Phule Pune
University

WeiRong Chen. In 2011, a 3kW high gain Boost converter for fuel cell was designed by ShuHai
Quan and ShiQiang Hao.

Figure 3.2 Power system of FCEV. [5]

3.4 Super Capacitors

The use of SCs in embedded systems is quite suitable because of their appropriate characteristics
in term of high power capacitance, low serial resistance and their short response time. The SC
offers very high capacitance in a small package. Rather than a battery, the SC is an energy
storage system (ESS) based on static charge process not on electro-chemical reaction. The high
surface electrode material, also called Double Layer Capacitor (Figure 3.3) stores the energy in
the double layer formed near the carbon electrode surface. The electrolyte may be aqueous or
organic. The aqueous variety offers low internal resistance but limits the voltage to one volt. In
contrast, the organic electrolyte allows 2.5 volts of charge, but the internal resistance is higher.
To operate at higher voltages, SCs are connected in series and voltage balancing is required for
each set of capacitors to protect any cell from over-voltage.

Department of mechanical engineering, Sinhgad institute of technology, lonavala

10
 Fuel cell electric vehicle Savitribai Phule Pune
University

Figure 3.3 Super capacitor charge separation. [3]

3.5 Batteries In FCEV

At the present time and in the foreseeable future, batteries have been agreed to be the major
energy source for EVs. In FCEVs, batteries are used as secondary source; these batteries have
high power density. The internal resistance is the major factor for the limited discharging and
charging current capability. The internal equivalent series resistance has different values under
charging and discharging operating conditions. The charging and discharging efficiency are
nonlinear functions of current and state of charge (SOC). The battery can be modeled as an
equivalent circuit such as a voltage source and an internal resistor.
There are many technologies of batteries used in HEVs:

A. Lead-Acid Batteries
The lead–acid battery presents several advantages for HEV applications. They are available in
production volumes today, yielding a comparatively low-cost power source. In addition, lead–

Department of mechanical engineering, Sinhgad institute of technology, lonavala

11
 Fuel cell electric vehicle Savitribai Phule Pune
University

acid battery technology is a mature technique due to its wide use over the past 50 years. The
battery energy and power density are low due to the weight of lead collectors.

B. Nickel–Metal Hydride (NiMH) Batteries

The energy density of the NiMH battery is twice that of the lead–acid battery. The NiMH battery
is safe to operate at high voltage and has distinct advantages, such as storing volumetric energy
and power, long cycle life, wide operation temperature ranges, and a resistance to cover
charge and discharge. On the other hand, if repeatedly discharged at high load currents, the
memory effect in NiMH battery systems reduces the usable power for the HEV, which reduces
the usable SOC of the battery to a value smaller than 100%.

C. Lithium-Ion Batteries
The lithium-ion battery has been proven to have excellent performance in portable electronics
and medical devices. The lithium-ion battery has high energy and power density, with good high
temperature performance, moreover it is recyclable. The promising aspects of the Li-ion
batteries include low memory effect, high specific power of 300 W/kg, high specific energy of
100 Wh/kg, and long battery and long battery.

D. Nickel–Zinc (Ni–Zn) Batteries

Nickel–Zinc batteries have high energy and power density, low-cost materials, and deep cycle
capability and are environmentally friendly. However, they suffer from poor life cycles due to
the fast growth of dendrites, which prevents the development of Ni–Zn batteries in vehicular
applications.

Department of mechanical engineering, Sinhgad institute of technology, lonavala

12
 Fuel cell electric vehicle Savitribai Phule Pune
University

4. WORKING

 It all starts with hydrogen. As shown in figure 4.1 when you pump hydrogen into the vehicle,
the gas travels to carbon-fiber fuel tanks where it is stored.
 Then comes the air(figure 4.2). The FCV’s front intake grills deliver the outside air to the
fuel cell stack.

Figure 4.1 Hydrogen cylinders [6] Figure 4.2 Intake of air [6]

 Which makes electricity(figure 4.3). Hydrogen travels from the tanks to the fuel cell stack.
There it goes through a chemical reaction involving the oxygen in air, creating electricity to
power the vehicle.

Department of mechanical engineering, Sinhgad institute of technology, lonavala

13
 Fuel cell electric vehicle Savitribai Phule Pune
University

Figure 4.3 Making of electricity. [6]

 Moving you forward(figure 4.4). When you put your foot on the gas pedal, electricity from
the fuel cell stack is send to the motor.
 Leaving behind nothing but water. In the end, only the by-product of creating electricity with
hydrogen and oxygen in fuel cell stack is water, which leaves through the tailpipe.

Figure 4.4. Propulsion of vehicle. [6]

Department of mechanical engineering, Sinhgad institute of technology, lonavala

14
 Fuel cell electric vehicle Savitribai Phule Pune
University

5. ANALYSIS OF MAJOR FCEV MODELS

These analyses are based on the data collected by Fuel Cells 2000’s. It contains the specifications
of major FCEV models including concept vehicles released since 1994. A total of 117 models
from 31 automakers have been analyzed. Most models utilize hydrogen in the form of
compressed gas, liquid, or in metal hydride. Only 9% of the models use other fuels such as
methanol. Figure 5.1 shows the top ten automakers in terms of the number of FCEV models they
produced. It reflects to a certain extent the research and development efforts of different
automakers. Many of these top ten companies such as Daimler, GM, Honda, Hyundai, Toyota,
and Ford are in the frontier of the FCEV commercialization, Nissan is very active in the battery
electric vehicle market with the success of Nissan Leaf so its attention on the FCEVs might be
compromised.

Figure 5.1 Top ten automakers with the most FCEV models. [1]
Figure 6.2 depicts the number of models produced in three-year periods from 1994 to 2012. The
numbers on each column are the number of automakers that produced FCEVs during that period.
This data reflects the popularity and perception of the FCEVs in the auto-industry.

Department of mechanical engineering, Sinhgad institute of technology, lonavala

15
 Fuel cell electric vehicle Savitribai Phule Pune
University

Since the introduction of NECAR 1 by Daimler, there had been a race towards the
commercialization of FCEVs, as suggested in the increasing trend of both the models and
automakers during the decade of 1994 to 2003. However, due to the technical difficulties such as
the fuel cell size and durability, lack of efficient hydrogen storage options, prohibitive price of
the metal catalyst, and lack of hydrogen fueling stations, the development of FCEVs slowed
down after the first ten years of development. Then in 2003, the federal administration spurred a
new round of intense FCEV research and development that led to the boost of models in 2008-
2011, as shown in Figure 5.2. In 2009, the DOE shifted emphasis to lithium ion battery
technology and reduced the funding to fuel cell R&D. This led to a decrease in the number of
models introduced in the 2012-2014 period. At present FCEV development did also benefit from
the California’s zero-emission vehicle act which would require automakers to sell an estimated
1.4 million fuel-cell vehicles, electric vehicles and plug-in hybrids in California by 2025.
California has pioneered adoption of FCEVs and is building public hydrogen fueling stations.
The sale of Toyota and Hyundai’s FCEVs will be limited to California initially.

Figure 5.2 The historical FCEV model development trend. The value above the columns
are the number of automakers. [1]

Department of mechanical engineering, Sinhgad institute of technology, lonavala

16
 Fuel cell electric vehicle Savitribai Phule Pune
University

5.1 Technology Development

The fuel cell power train is a modular assembly. Figure 5.3 compares the popularity of different
power train configurations of all the FCEV models. Even though all fuel cell vehicles are
equipped with a battery of a certain size, there are some notable differences between a fuel cell
power train and a fuel cell/battery hybrid or a fuel cell/super capacitor power train. A fuel cell
power train usually suffers from poor response time and low traction power during start up. The
role of the energy storage system (ESS) in a fuel cell vehicle is to: 1) capture the regenerative
braking to increase the fuel efficiency; 2) Provide traction assistance during acceleration to
compensate fuel cell’s slow ramp rate; 3) Provide traction assistance during high power
transients so that a smaller fuel cell can be used; 4) power electrical accessories.

In other words, in a fuel cell/ESS hybrid vehicle, the fuel cell provides power for cruising, and
when the vehicle is accelerating or climbing hills, both the fuel cell and the ESS provide power.
The fuel cell/battery hybrid or the fuel cell/super capacitor hybrids were adopted in 30% more
models than a pure fuel cell power train. A vehicle with a fuel cell range extender is a relatively
new concept. In this case, the electric motor for propulsion is solely powered by a battery. The
fuel cell generates electricity to recharge the battery, similar to the concept of the Chevy Volt
which uses a gasoline engine as a range extender. A vehicle with this power train configuration
is usually equipped with a larger battery than pure fuel cell or fuel cell/battery hybrid vehicles
that can give a 20-50 mile range on the battery alone. Therefore, the vehicle can operate without
the frequent need for hydrogen fueling. A fuel cell range extender vehicle is an active area of
EVTC research.

Department of mechanical engineering, Sinhgad institute of technology, lonavala

17
 Fuel cell electric vehicle Savitribai Phule Pune
University

Figure 5.3 The power train configurations of different FCEV models. [1]

The analysis of FCEV models from the top ten automakers is shown in Figure 5.4. A total of 83
models were considered. Figure 5.4 shows the fuel cell power for pure fuel cell and fuel cell/ESS
hybrid vehicles. For pure fuel cell cars, most of the fuel cell sizes range from 80-100 kW, with
the exception of 50 kW size for the very early models developed in 1994-1998. The electric
motor in a Nissan Leaf battery electric car is 80 kW, so a 80-100 kW fuel cell is probably
sufficient to achieve performance similar to a Nissan Leaf as it can power a similar size electric
motor. For a fuel cell-ESS hybrid vehicle, the size range of the fuel cell is much larger, from 20
to 100 kW, as a smaller fuel cell can be compensated by a larger battery. However, fuel cells
larger than 60 kW are favored.

Department of mechanical engineering, Sinhgad institute of technology, lonavala

18
Fuel cell electric vehicle Savitribai Phule Pune
University

Figure 5.4 Range of FCEV power train for models from the top ten FCEV
Automakers. [1]

Department of mechanical engineering, Sinhgad institute of technology, lonavala

19
 Fuel cell electric vehicle Savitribai Phule Pune
University

6. CASE STUDY
Table 6.1 Real-world demonstration projects of fuel cell vehicles and their specifications.[1]

Year Automa Model Engine FC Range Max Hydrogen Note

ker Power (miles) speed Pressure
(kW) (mph) (Bar)
2002 Toyota FCHV Fuel cell/ 90 180 96 350 18 leased in
battery California and
hybrid Japan
2002 Daimler A-Class Fuel cell/ 85 90 87 700 60 vehicles in
F- battery US, Japan,
CELL hybrid Singapore, and
Europe started
in 2003
2002 Ford Advanc Fuel cell/ 85 180 n/a 350 30 fleet vehicles
ed battery in Sacramento,
Focus hybrid Orlando, and
FCV Detroit
2002 GM Advanc Fuel cell 94 170 100 700 6 placed in
ed Washington DC
Hydro
Gen3
2002 Nissan X- Fuel cell/ 75 n/a 78 350 3 leased to
TRAIL battery Japanese
hybrid government
2004 Hyundai Tucson Fuel cell/ 80 185 93 350 Demonstration
battery project in the
hybrid US between
2004-2009 and
in Korea
between 2006-
2010
2004 Kia Sportag Fuel cell 80 185 93 n/a Demonstration
e project in the
US between
2004-2009 and
in Korea
between 2006-
2010

Department of mechanical engineering, Sinhgad institute of technology, lonavala

20
 Fuel cell electric vehicle Savitribai Phule Pune
University

2006 GM Equino Fuel cell/ 93 200 100 n/a Leasing started

x battery in 2007. 100
FCEV hybrid vehicles in
California, New
York, and
Washington DC
2007 Honda FCX Fuel cell 100 354 100 350 Small scale
Clarity production of
200 vehicles
between 2008-
2010, Leasing
in Southern
California and
Japan
2008 Kia Borreg Fuel cell/ 115 426 93 700 Leasing to
o/ super Seoul, Korean
Mojave capacitor residents
FCEV starting in 2009
2008 Toyota FCHV- Fuel cell/ n/a 97 n/a n/a Limited leasing
adv battery in Japan started
hybrid in 2008. More
than 100 leased
in Connecticut,
California and
New York.
2009 Daimler Merced Fuel cell 90 239 105 n/a Small series
es-Benz production
B-Class started in 2009.
F- 70 Deployed in
CELL Los Angeles
and San
Francisco by
2012
2011 Hyundai Tucson Fuel cell/ 100 403 n/a 700 Tested 50
IX battery vehicles in 2011
hybrid
2012 Hyundai ix35 Fuel cell/ 100 365 100 n/a Leasing in
battery Sweden and
hybrid Denmark
started in 2012

Department of mechanical engineering, Sinhgad institute of technology, lonavala

21
 Fuel cell electric vehicle Savitribai Phule Pune
University

One of the biggest pushes in recent years to mature hydrogen and fuel cell technology for
transportation was the $1.2 billion funding issued by the Bush Administration in 2003. One of
the key projects was the U.S. Department of Energy’s (DOE’s) $ 170 million Controlled
Hydrogen Fleet and Infrastructure Validation and Demonstration Project. The objective of this
project was to test small fleets of FCEVs plus fueling stations to demonstrate their use in five
regions in the United States. The five test regions were located in Northern California, Southern
California, Southeastern Michigan, the Mid-Atlantic, and Central Florida, covering a range of
temperature and humidity conditions.

DOE selected four automobile manufacturer/energy company teams to participate in the project
— Hyundai-Kia/Chevron, DaimlerChrysler/BP, Ford/BP, and GM/Shell. Together, they
deployed 183 FCEVs, and more than 500,000 individual vehicle trips covering 3.6 million miles
were traveled. The DOE’s 2009 targets of 250 mile range, fuel cell durability of 2000 hours, and
fuel cell efficiency of 60% were met during the demonstration. Real-world driving conditions
such as climate compatibility were also tested. In a separate demonstration project in 2009,
Toyota collaborated with Savannah River National Laboratory to evaluate the on-road
performance of the Toyota FCHV-adv vehicles. An average range of 431 miles was obtained
during a 1-day test in Southern California, well exceeding the 250 mile DOE target.

Toyota and Hyundai announced their first commercially available fuel cell vehicles for 2015
(limited lease program started in 2014). The leases will be first available in California where the
public hydrogen fueling stations are located. The specifications of these vehicles are shown in
Table 6.2 Both models show similar ranges that exceed the best battery electric car in the current
market (the Tesla Model S-85 with 265 miles in range). The fueling time for both models is
comparable to gasoline vehicles, which presents a significant advantage over the battery electric
car which requires at least 30 minutes to get to ~80% of its range capacity.

Table 6.2 Specifications of the 2015 Hyundai and Toyota FCEVs. [1]
Maker Model Fuel Cell Range Fueling Price Note
Power (miles) Time

Department of mechanical engineering, Sinhgad institute of technology, lonavala

22
 Fuel cell electric vehicle Savitribai Phule Pune
University

(kW)
Hyundai Tucson 100 265 <10 min
Lease at Price
Fuel Cell $499/month, includes
$2999 due at fuel and
signing maintenance
Toyota Mirai 114 435 3 min ¥ 7 million in n/a
Japan ($68600)
In 2013, Ford, Nissan, and Daimler signed a deal to jointly develop affordable fuel cell vehicles
to be commercialized by 2017. A GM and Honda partnership is also aiming to bring fuel cell
vehicles to the market by 2020. A timeline summarizing major events in the fuel cell vehicle
development is shown in Figure 6.1.

Figure-6.1 Timeline of major events in fuel cell vehicle developments. [1]

Department of mechanical engineering, Sinhgad institute of technology, lonavala

23
 Fuel cell electric vehicle Savitribai Phule Pune
University

7. SUMMARY

Since the first fuel cell powered vehicle was introduced by GM in 1966, the FCEVs have
become a potential solution to the energy and environmental challenges caused by use of fossil
fuels in transportation. A timeline showed an accelerated development of FCEVs since their first
introduction in 1966. Over thirty automakers from around the world have demonstrated over one
hundred FCEV models in the past two decades, representing a significant investment towards the
research and development of FCEVs. The variety of fuel cell sizes and power train
configurations in the different models appears to provide the automakers with a portfolio from
which they can optimize future FCEV parameters. As a result of these efforts and government
support, this technology is finally beginning to reach commercialization.

Department of mechanical engineering, Sinhgad institute of technology, lonavala

24
Fuel cell electric vehicle Savitribai Phule Pune
University

8. REFERENCES

1. Dr. Nan Qin, Dr. Ali Raissi, Dr. Paul Brooker, “Analysis of Fuel Cell Vehicle
Developments”, Florida Solar Energy Center, FSEC Report Number: FSEC-CR-1987-14.
September 2014.

2. Mr. M. Karthik, “Dynamic Neural Network Based Parametric Modeling of PEM Fuel
Cell System for Electric Vehicle Applications” 2FICAEE 2014 page 354–360.

3. M.N. Sid, “Energy Management and Optimal Control Strategies of Fuel cell/Super
capacitors Hybrid Vehicle” 2FICELMACH 2014 page 410-419.

4. Hamza Alloui, “A Control Strategy Scheme for Fuel Cell-Vehicle Based on Frequency
Separation” Laboratoire Commande des Machines, École Militaire Polytechnique
Algiers, Algeria, First International Conference on Green Energy ICGE 2014 page 516-
521.

5. Wang Jian, “A research of the interlacing-control Boost Converter for fuel cell vehicle”
Hunan CSR Times Electric Vehicle [Link], Zhuzhou, Hunan. 2Fitec-ap 2014 page 210-
217.

6. [Link] .

7. [Link]

Department of mechanical engineering, Sinhgad institute of technology, lonavala

25