GREEN VALLEY EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTE

10TH (SCIENCE) BIOLOGY [LIFE PROCESS]

What are Life Processes?
Life Processes are those basic functions of living beings which are
essential for their survival. They are the same in all types of living
forms whether unicellular or multicellular, plants or animals.
1. Maintenance:- All living beings are made of protoplasmic
structures. They have to be kept in functional state whether an
organism is active or inactive. Functional state of protoplasmic
structures is maintained only if they are kept in dynamic state with
breakdown and build-up processes going on simultaneously.
2. Metabolism:- It is the sum total of all chemical reactions which
occur in a living being due to interaction amongst its molecules. All
functions of organisms are due to metabolism. Metabolism has two
components, anabolism and catabolism. Anabolism or constructive
metabolism consists of build-up reactions where complex molecules
are formed from simpler ones, e.g., formation of glycogen from
glucose or proteins from amino acids. Energy is required for anabolic
reactions. Catabolism or destructive metabolism consists of
breakdown reactions where complex substances are broken down
into simpler substances, e.g., respiration (breaks glucose into carbon
dioxide and water).
3. Nutrition:- It is required by all living beings for providing energy
and body building materials. Body building materials are usually
carbon based so that food sources are also carbon based. Plants
manufacture their own food in the process of photosynthesis.
Animals obtain food from outside. Food obtained from outside is

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 first broken down into simpler soluble substances for absorption.
Inside the cells, the simple substances are converted into various
complex bio-chemicals to form components of protoplasm.
4. Respiration:- Every living being requires energy for working of
body machinery, its maintenance, repair, replacement and bio-
synthesis. Energy is obtained by break down of carbon based
molecules in the process of respiration. Oxidation-reduction
reactions are common chemical reactions involved in respiratory
break down of molecules. Most organisms use oxygen obtained from
outside for the process of respiration.
5. Growth:- It is irreversible increase in body cells that occurs in young
organisms prior to reaching maturity. Plants have the ability to
continuously grow. Growth is possible if buildup reactions
(Anabolism) are more abundant than break down reactions
(Catabolic reactions). For this, the organisms must prepare or obtain
food materials more than their requirement for maintenance.
6. Exchange of materials:- There is a regular exchange of materials
between the living organisms and their environment. Living beings
obtain nutrients, water and oxygen from their environment. They
give out undigested materials, carbon dioxide and waste products.
Single-celled organisms have the entire surface in direct contact with
the environment. They do not possess any specific structures for
intake and explosion of materials. Diffusion, facilitated transport and
active transport are involved for movement of substances across the
cell membrane.

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 In multicellular organisms specialized structures have been
formed for different functions e.g., ingestion, egestion, exchange of
gases
7. Transportation:- In multicellular organisms, all the cells are not in
direct contact with the environment. They have specific structures for
exchange of gases, ingestion and digestion of food materials.
However, every cell of the body has to be provided with food, water
and oxygen. Similarly, carbon dioxide and wastes have to be taken
away from every cell. Therefore, a mechanism of transportation is
found. It is circulatory system in animals and vascular tissues in
plants.
8. Excretion:- A number of waste products are formed as byproducts
of metabolism. They are usually toxic and are removed from the
body. The process of removal of waste products from the body is
called excretion.
9. Irritability:- Every living organism is aware of its surroundings. It
responds to changes in the environment.

NUTRITION:- may be defined as a collective phenomenon in which an

organism is capable of capturing food essential not only for maintaining
vital life processes, but also for repair and growth of tissues. The whole
process of nutrition involves introduction of food, its digestion by
various juices and enzymes and break down into smaller simpler and
soluble molecules, absorption of the soluble food and lastly expulsion of
undigested matter formed during the process.

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 MODES OF NUTRITION: - The nutrition of all the organisms may
broadly be grouped into three categories, which are:-

a)Autotropic Nutrition Or Holophytic:- It is a mode of nutrition in

which organisms are able to build up their own organic food from
inorganic raw materials with the help of energy. The organisms
performing Autotropic nutrition are called Autotrops, Auto meaning
self and trophe meaning nourishment. Autotropic nutrition is a
characteristic feature of all the green colored pigments called as
chlorophyll. These plants have an ability to synthesize all the essential
organic compounds. From inorganic compounds like CO2 and H2O in
presence of sunlight with the help of a process called Photosynthesis.
Some animals, that contain chlorophyll in their bodies also, show this
property of synthesizing their own food material eg; Euglena and some
green bacteria like sulphur and methane bacteria.
b)Heterotrophic Nutrition: - It is a mode of nutrition in which
organisms obtain readymade organic food from outside source. The
organisms that depend upon outside sources for obtaining organic
nutrients are called heterotrophs, (hetero or heteros and trophe meaning
nourishment). It is a characteristic feature of all animals and non green
plants, that are unable to utilize carbon and synthesis organic
compounds necessary for life, but depends upon organic sources of
carbon. They are thus dependent upon autotropic organisms (Plants)
and are called as heterotrophs. It is of the following types:-
1) Saprophytic Nutrition:- In this type of nutrition, an organism lives
upon dead organic sources such as dead plants and dead animals.
These usually secrete dissolving and digesting enzymes and absorb the
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 liquified molecules so formed e.g.; yeast, bread moulds and dung
moulds etc.
2) Parasitic Nutrition:- In this type of nutrition, an organism lives
totally at the expense of others and derives its food material and
shelter from the other .These organisms which derive food material are
called parasites and the organism from which food is derived is called
as host. This type of nutrition is termed as parasitic or holozoic
nutrition .It is also known as parasite-host relationship e.g. Cuscuta,
Ascaris etc.
3) Holozoic Nutrition:- It is a mode of heterotrophic nutrition which
involves intake of solid pieces of food. Since solid food is taken in,
Holozoic nutrition is also called ingestive nutrition. Holozoic nutrition
(GK. Holo-Whole, Zoon-Animal) is found in animals and protozoan
protists. The food may consist of another animal, plant or its parts.
Depending upon the source of food, Holozoic organisms are of three
types- Herbivores, Carnivores, Ominivores.
Steps in Holozoic Nutrition:-

There are five steps in Holozoic nutrition- ingestion, digestion,

absorption, assimilation and egestion.
1. Ingestion (L. ingestus-taken in.):- It is taking in of solid food with
the help of temporary or permanent mouth. Different animals use
different organs for catching, holding and putting the food into
mouth. Cutting and tearing the solid food into small pieces is
common for ingestion.
2. Digestion:- The ingested food consists of complex insoluble
organic substances. The conversion of complex insoluble food

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 ingredients into simple absorbable form is called digestion. It is a
catabolic process which occurs with the help of digestive enzymes.
3. Absorption:- The digestive food is absorbed from the digestive
tract and transported to all body parts. It is picked up by all the
living cells.
4. Assimilation:- Inside the living cells, the absorbed food materials
are used in obtaining energy and formation of new components for
repair and growth of cells. Assimilation is an anabolic process as it
takes part in synthesis of proteins, polysaccharides, fats and other
macromolecules.
5. Egestion:- ([Link]-discharge) The whole of ingested food is
seldom digested. The undigested components of food are thrown
out of the body as faecal matter. The process is called egestion.

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 Difference between Autotrophic and Heterotrophic nutrition
Autotrophic Nutrition Heterotrophic Nutrition
Food is self manufactured. Food is obtained readymade from outside.
An external source of An external source of energy is not
energy is required for required. The required energy is present in
synthesis of food. the food obtained from outside.
Inorganic substances Inorganic substances are not much
constitute the raw materials required.
for manufacturing food.
Digestion is absent. An external or internal digestion is
required for conversion of complex organic
materials into simpler and soluble ones.
Chlorophyll is present for Chlorophyll is absent
trapping light energy.
Organisms performing Organisms performing heterotrophic
autotrophic nutrition nutrition
function as producers. function as consumers.
Examples:- Green plants, Animals, Many protists and Monerans.
Some bacteria, Some
protists.

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Digestion:-

Digestion may be defined as hydrolysis of complex organic

molecules with the help of enzymes into their simpler and diffusible
component which can be absorbed in the gastrointestinal tract for further
utilization. Thus it includes both mechanical and chemical breakdown of
the ingested food material. It starts in the mouth and continues into small
intestines.

TYPES OF Digestion
Digestion is of two types: - Intracellular and Extracellular
1)Intracellular Digestion: - In unicellular organisms like Amoeba the
food is taken through its surface (Endocytosis) and the digests it within
the cell. This type of digestion occurring with in the cell is known as
Intracellular Digestion.
2) Extracellular or Intercellular Digestion:- In higher multicellular
organisms the food is put into a cavity or canal
called alimentary canal or digestive tract or Gut or
GIT where food is digested and then absorbed into
the blood to reach the different parts of the body
for proper utilization. The undigested food if any
is passed out of the body through the other end of
the alimentary canal. This type of digestion
(outside the cell) is known as Extracellular or
Intercellular digestion.

DIGESTION IN MAN Digestion of food material ingested by a man

does not takes place in a particular region of the digestive tract or
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alimentary canal .It is completed in different parts which may be
described as under

1. Digestion of food in mouth:- (buccal cavity) In man the process of

digestion starts in the mouth which prepares food material for the
digestion. In mouth, the teeth start breaking down food by the process
of mastication. During this process the food is thoroughly mixed with
saliva secreted by the salivary glands .It contains large number of
enzymes, of which salivary amylase (ptyalin) is of great importance,
causing chemical digestion of starch .The masticated and partially
digested food is then rounded off in a form of small ball called as
bolus with the help of tongue and is passed through the esophagus or
food pipe or gullet into the stomach by the peristaltic movements of
the esophagus
2. Digestion in stomach:- In the stomach, the partially digested food
material is acted upon by gastric juice secreted by gastric glands,
containing HCL, pepsin, rennin, and gastric lipase enzymes. The
gastric juice is a composite secretion of at least three different types of
cells - parietal cells, chief cells and mucous cells. The parietal cells
secrete HCL, The chief cells supply pepsin and other enzymes like
rennin etc. and the mucous cells secrete mucin in the stomach pepsin
breaks down the proteins into smaller molecules known as peptidase.
The process is aided by the addition of HCL, which not only activates
the various enzymes but also turns the food into soup called chyme.
This chyme passes into the duodenum for further action.
3. Digestion in small intestine:- In the anterior part of the small
intestine called duodenum, the food (chyme) is mixed with the bile

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 juices from liver, pancreatic juice from pancreas and intestinal juice
from the intestinal glands. The combined effect of these juices causes
the chief chemical changes of the intestinal digestion. These juices
contain enzymes, which digest carbohydrates, proteins and fats of the
food material. The broken food material is then diffused through the
epithelial cells of the intestinal villi (finger like projections of the
intestine) into the blood vessels which carries it to the cells.
4. Digestion in large intestine:- The process of the digestion does not
take place in this region. It simply secrets mucus, which serves as a
lubricant for easy passage of the undigested matter in the form of
faeces. The intestinal walls also absorb water from the undigested food
material passed into it which is ultimately egested through the anus.
Dental Caries: - It is localized softening and destruction of enamel and
dentine of teeth forming cavities that reach the pulp. Dental caries is also
called dental decay. It is caused by bacterium streptococcus mutans. It
feeds on food particles especially sugars and produces acids. The acids
are growing on food particles streptococcus mutans multiplies rapidly and
forms a dental plaque. The plaque covers the teeth. Its bacteria secrete the
acids that cause dental caries. Saliva which normally neutralises the acid
and kills the bacteria is unable to protect the teeth because of the plaque.
Brushing of teeth after meals removes the plaque. Bacteria are unable to
multiply and produce acids. However, if plaque formation is allowed to
persist, softening of enamel and dentine will allow the microorganisms to
reach the pulp of the teeth. This results in inflammation and infection
resulting in acute pain, total decay and falling of teeth.
Photosynthesis (Photos-Light, Synthesis-putting together)

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 Photosynthesis may be defined as an anabolic process in which
green plants manufacture complex organic food substances
(carbohydrate) from simple inorganic compounds like carbon dioxide and
water in presence of sunlight with the aid of chlorophyll and evolve out
oxygen as a byproduct of the process. Thus photosynthesis is a process in
which radiant energy is converted into chemical energy

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In other words photosynthesis is a series of oxidation- reduction reaction
in which C02 is reduced and H20 is oxidized to produce carbohydrates and
oxygen.

Mechanism of Photosynthesis:-
Photosynthesis is formation of organic food from carbon dioxide and
water with the help of sunlight inside chlorophyll containing cells.
Oxygen is produced as by-products.

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Oxygen comes from water. Hydrogen of water is used to reduce carbon
dioxide to form carbohydrate.

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

[ ]
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Actually, photosynthesis occurs in two steps, photochemical and

biochemical.

1. Photochemical phase (Light or Hill Reaction) The reactions of this

phase are driven by light energy. They are of two steps- photolysis of
water and formation of assimilatory power.

a. Photolysis of water:- Light energy splits up water into two

components. The step requires an oxygen evolving complex
(formerly called z-complex) having manganese ions. Calcium and
chlorine are also required.

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

Formation of Assimilatory power:- Electrons released by photolysis of

water are picked up by chlorophyll a molecules. On absorption of light

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energy, each chlorophyll a molecule throws out an electron with gain of
energy. This is primary reaction of photosynthesis which converts light
energy into chemical energy. Electrons travel along an electron transport
system, releasing energy in the process. The energy is used in the
formation of ATP (adeno sine triphosphate) from ADP and inorganic
phosphate. Synthesis of ATP and ADP and inorganic phosphate (pi) with
the help of light energy is called Phototophosphory lation.
ADP + Pi + energy ►ATP
The electrons ultimately activate NADP (nicotinamide di
nucleotide phosophate) and makes it combine with hydrogen to form
NADPH2.
NADP+ + 2e + 2H+ ► NADPH + H+ (NADPH2)
Both ATP and NADPH2 together form assimilatory power

[Link] phase (Dark or Blackman's Reaction):- It is actually

light independent reaction which can occur both in light as well as in
dark. It requires the energy and reducing power contained in
assimilatory power of light reaction. Common pathway of biosynthetic
phase is calvin cycle. Carbon dioxide combines with ribulose
biphosphate in the presence of enzyme ribulose biphosphate
carboxylase or rubisco. It produces two molecules of phosphoglyceric
acid (PGA).

In the presence of ATP, phosphoglyceric acid is reduced by

NADPH2 to form glyceraldehydes phosphate (GAP).

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 PGA + ATP + NADPH2 --------------------- ► GAP + NADP + ADP + Pi
A part of glyceraldehydes phosphate is changed into
dihydroxyacetone phosphate. The two condense and form glucose.
Ribulose biphosphate is regenerated to combine with carbon dioxide
again. Glucose undergoes condensation to form starch.
To sum up, the dark phase of photosynthesis or calvin cycle
comprises of three types of reactions: carboxylation, reduction and
regeneration (of RuBP)
The below figure depicts the dark phase of photosynthesis also called
Calvin cycle

Raw material of the photosynthesis:-

The process of photosynthesis require various raw materials
essential to synthesize energy complex compounds called carbohydrates.
These include

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(1) Chlorophyll:-
The chlorophyll or green pigment of the plant are the most active
and important pigments of the photosynthesis. These are regarded as
key pigments of the photosynthesis because of their remarkable
ability of absorbing light energy, which is then converted into
chemical energy during the process of photosynthesis. All the green
plants contain chloroplasts, which give the coloring material and are
accordingly called as photosynthetic- organelles of the plants.
(2) CO2:- All green plants utilize free atmospheric carbon dioxide
during the process of photosynthesis to synthesis energy rich
complex organic molecules called carbohydrates. These
photosynthetic plants fix free atmospheric carbon dioxide during
daytime when light energy is available to them. But during the night,
the process stops.
(3) Water:- Water is another raw material for the process of
photosynthesis. Plants absorb the required amount of water by root
hairs and pass it on to the leaves through xylem, where it is utilized
during the process of photosynthesis to synthesis energy organic
compounds.
(4) Light:- The sunlight is a natural and prime source of energy for
photosynthesis. It has been verified by experiments that the rate of
photosynthesis remains highest in red light. Ordinary light consists
of seven colors (VIBGYOR) and during photosynthesis; chlorophyll
does not use all the seven colors. It absorbs mostly red and violet
portions only. However, the green color reflects back which gives
chlorophyll a greenish appearance.

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 Activities to demonstrate:-

1) Importance of Chlorophyll:- Take a variegated leaf of a garden plant

that has been exposed to sunlight for few hours. Test it for starch with
iodine test. Only green parts of the plant leaf will turn blue, showing
that chlorophyll is necessary for photosynthesis.

2) Importance of Light:- Take a destarched potted plant, which has been

kept in dark for 3 to 4 days.
Cover one of its leaves
completely with a carbon
paper so that no light falls on
it. Keep the plant in light for 4
to 6 hours. Test the covered
leaf and uncovered leaf for
starch with iodine test. The
covered leaf will show
negligible amount of starch,
while the uncovered leaf will give positive test for starch. The process
clearly shows 7 light is necessary for photosynthesis.

3) Necessity of Carbon dioxide:-Take two de starched potted plants and

cover them with transparent polythene bags, so that no fresh air enters
into them. Keep NaoH (Soda lime) that would absorb Co 2 in one pot
and NaHCo (Sodium Bi-Carbonate) solution that would produce more
Co2 in the other pot. Keep both the pots in the sunlight for 4 to 6 hours
and test one leaf from each for starch. The leaf from the first Pot will
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 show no starch due to the absence of Co2, while the leaf from the
second pot will give positive test for the starch, thereby showing that
Co2 is necessary for photosynthesis.
4) Evolution of oxygen:- Take a beaker filled with water . Add a pinch of
baking soda (NaHC03) to it and put a Hydrilla plant (Aquatic plant) in
it. Cover the plant with a funnel. Invert a test tube containing water
over the stem of the funnel. Keep this apparatus in the bright sunlight.
After some time bubbles start emerging out from the plant, which gets
collected in the upper part of the test tube. Remove the test tube and
test the gas with a lighted splinter, it keeps on glowing showing that the
gas is a supporter of combustion. Thus, the experiment clearly shows
that O2 is evolved during photosynthesis.
RESPIRATION
Respiration is a biochemical process of stepwise oxidative
breakdown of organic compounds inside living cells releasing small
packets of energy at various steps. Respiration is an essential
physiological activity of all living organisms by which they obtains
energy for carrying out various vital metabolic activities of the body.
However, it is a chemical activity taking place within the protoplasm of
a cell, which results in the liberation of energy. Energy liberated during
oxidative breakdown of respiratory substrate is partly stored in ATP.
The rest is dissipated as heat. The process of respiration involves the
following steps.

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1) External Respiration or Breathing:- It refers to those mechanism by
which air is brought into the body from the atmosphere and expulsion
of Co2 from the body into the atmosphere. The exchange of the gases
takes place at the respiratory surface such as gills, tracheae or lungs.
2) Transport of Respiratory gases:- This phase involves transport of
oxygen from respiratory surface to the body tissue_Co 2 from the
tissues to the respiratory surface. In higher animals it takes place
mainly through blood.
3) Internal or Tissue Respiration:- This phase of respiration involves
consumption of oxygen by the body cells and production of Co 2 as a
result of oxidative processes resulting in the liberation of energy
necessary for the biological work of the body.
The distinct phases of respiration are represented in the diagram.
Aerobic and Anaerobic Respiration:-

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Sachs (1890) discovered that respiration can occur with or without
oxygen. Therefore, there are two types of respiration, aerobic and
anaerobic.
Aerobic Respiration (Gk. Aer-air, bios-life)
It is a multistep complete oxidative breakdown of respiratory
substrate into carbon dioxide and water with the help of oxygen acting as
a terminal oxidant. Aerobic respiration is the usual mode of respiration in
all higher organisms and most of the lower organisms. The reason is that
it yields maximum amount of energy.

The energy is stored in some 38 molecules of ATP. Aerobic

respiration occurs in two steps, glycolysis and Krebs cycle.
Glycolysis (Gk. Glykys- sugar, lysis-breakdown):- Glycolysis or EMP
(Embden, Meyerhof and parnas) pathway is the first step of respiration
which is common to both aerobic and anaerobic modes of respiration. It
occurs in cytoplasm. Respiratory substrate is double phosphorylated
before it undergoes lysis to produce 3-carbon compounds glyceraldehydes
phosphate. NADH2 and ATP are produced when glyceraldehyde is
changed to pyruvate. The net reaction of glycolysis is:

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Krebs Cycle (Krebs, 1940):-

It is also known as citric acid cycle or tricarboxlic acid cycle (TCA cycle).
Pyruvic acid or pyrovate enters mitochondria. It undergoes oxidative
decarboxylation to produce acetyl CoA, carbon dioxide and NADH2.
Acetyl CoA enters Krebs cycle. Here two decarboxylation, four
dehydrogenations and one phosphorylation or ATP synthesis occur.

NADH2 and FADH2 liberate electrons and hydrogen ions. They are use in
building up ATP molecules and activating oxygen molecules to combine
with hydrogen for forming water. Water formed in respiration is called
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metabolic water. As oxygen is used at the end of Krebs cycle for
combining with hydrogen, the process is called terminal oxidation.
The overall equation of aerobic respiration using glucose as substrate is

→ →

Anaerobic Respiration (Gk. An-without, Aer-Air, BOIS- Life):-

It is a multi step breakdown of respiratory substrate in which atleast one
end product is organic and which does not employ oxygen as an oxidant.
Anaerobic respiration occurs in many lower organisms, e.g. certain
bacteria, yeast. In human body it occurs regularly in red blood cells and
during heavy exercise in muscles (striated muscles). Anaerobic
respiration occurs entirely in the cytoplasm. It has two steps. The first
step is glycolysis. Here, respiratory substrate glucose breakdown into
two molecules of pyruvate, ATP and NADH2. Pyruvate is converted
into ethyl alchol (C2H50H) in yeast and certain bacteria. It is changed to
lactic acid ([Link]). In muscle cells when oxygen
utilization is faster than its availability as during vigorous exercise. It
creates an oxygen debt in the body. No such change occurs in blood
corpuscels.

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In Yeast

→ →

In Muscle cells

→ →

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 Difference between Aerobic and Anaerobic Respiration

Aerobic Respiration Anaerobic Respiration

It is common method of respiration It occurs permanently only in few
organisms. In other it may occur
as a temporary measure to
overcome shortage of oxygen.
It is completed in three steps- There are two steps-glycolysis and
glycolysis, Krebs cycle and terminal anaerobic breakdown of pyruvic
oxidation acid
It requires oxygen Oxygen is not required
Respiratory substrate is completely Respiratory substrate is
broken down incompletely broken down
They are inorganic Atleast one end product is organic.
Inorganic products may or may
not be present
End products show little toxicity The organic end product is
generally toxic
It occurs partly in cytoplasm and Anaerobic respiration is carried
partly in mitochondria out entirely in cytoplasm.
Mitochondria are not required
An electron transport chain is ETC is not required
required
It in release 686 kcal or 2870 kj of Energy liberated is 36-50 kcal or
energy per mole of glucose 150-210 kj per mole of glucose
The liberated energy is used in The liberated energy is used in
forming 36-38 ATP molecules per synthesis of 2ATP molecules.
mole of glucose

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Mechanism of Respiration:- There are different mechanisms for
process of respiration in different form of organism. The mechanisms of
respiration in some of organisms may be described as under:-

1. Respiration in simple organi[Link] In the simplest forms of life like

Amoeba, Euglena, Paramecium, Algae and Spirogyra, the respiratory
gases may diffused in and out of the body through general body
surface.
2. Respiration in Insects: - In insects, respiration of gases takes place
through a system of internally air filled tubules called trachea. These
opens into the exterior environment by paired
apertures called as spiracles these tissues carry air directly into the
tissues of the body and bring out carbon dioxide out from them.
3. Respiration in aquatic animals: - In majority of higher aquatic
animals like prawns and fish, the process of respiration or gaseous
exchange takes place by a special respiratory organ called as gills. The
gills are made up of a large number of gill plates, which increase
surface area of the gills. Each gill is provided with a large number of
membranous gill lamellae the bold of gills absorb dissolved oxygen
from water when it mover over them and carbon dioxide from blood
goes out into the water i,e from the higher concentration of oxygen
and carbon dioxide towards their lower concentration.
4. Respiration in plants: - In plants the gaseous exchange or respiration
takes place through the stomata of the leaves, lenticels of woody stems
and surface of the roots. The diffused air passes through the stomatal
opening into the mesophyll cells of the leaves. Similarly air is diffused
inn through the small microscopic openings in stem and roots of a

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 plant and carbon dioxide is diffused out into the outer atmosphere or
soil.
Mechanism of breathing in man: -

Human beings like other land animals breathe through their noses
with the help of pair of lungs
located in an airtight thoracic
cavity. The lungs are spongy, air
filled sac's, which do not have any
muscle tissue and thus cannot
expand or contract at their own.
The process of breathing is
accomplished through changes in
volume and air pressure of the
thoracic cavity. The lungs respond passively to the pressure changes
within a chest cavity due to contraction and relaxation of muscles of ribs
and movements of diaphragm during inspiration and expiration.
In normal breathing, air enters into the nasal chamber through nose,
where it is cleaned and warmed by the ciliated epithelium. The warmed
and cleaned air then passes into the windpipe or tracheae through larynx
and epiglottis. The tracheae at its lower portion bifurcates into two
bronchi, each entering into a lung lobe, where a bronchus divides
extensively by giving out various small branches called bronchioles.
Finally the air is deposited in microscopic air sacs called alveoli.
These are lined by a layer of epithelial cells and surrounded by a
network of blood capillaries. The air in the lungs diffuses through the
walls of these blood capillaries into the main blood stream and carbon

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dioxide in turn diffuses out into the lungs, where from it is expelled out
into the external environment. This gaseous exchange is completed
within a few seconds, while the blood is passed through the alveoli.

Diffusion: -The process of movement of molecules from one region to

another in accordance to concentration gradient i.e., from the region of
higher concentration to the region of lower concentration is called as
diffusion. It takes place in all kinds of matter i.e. solid, liquid and gas, but
the process is faster in gases than solids or liquids.
The process of diffusion is a main method of transport of material in
unicellular organisms like Amoeba, Euglena, Paramecium, Algae and
Chlamydomonas etc. and some of the multicellular organisms like
Sponges, Hydra etc.
Osmosis: - When two liquids of different densities are separated from
each other by a selectively permeable membrane, the water of the liquids
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flows towards the liquid of higher density. This process in which water
moves from a solution of lower density to the solution of lower density to
the solution of higher density or from a dilute to a concentrated solution
through a selectively permeable membrane is called osmosis.
Transportation:- is the movement of materials from one part to another,
usually from the region of their availability to the region of their use,
storage or elimination. Transportation occurs in all organisms, from
microscopic ones to large sized trees and animals.
Transport in plants: - Plants absorb sufficient quantity of water from
soil by means of root hairs through the process of osmosis but they also
take in minerals by the process of diffusion. Some part of this water is
used up by the plant during various processes and the rest evaporates
from the stem and roots. The evaporation of this surplus water from the
aerial parts of a plant is known as transpiration.
In general, transpiration may be cuticular, lenticular or stomatal.
The cuticular transpiration takes place through the cuticle found on the
surface of the stem and leaves. The lenticular transpiration takes place
through the lenticels found on the stem. The stomatal transpiration takes
place through the stomata situated on the leaves.
It is through the process of transpiration, that the water along with
dissolved mineral salts is taken up and transported up through the
xylem. Evaporation of water from the leaves through stomata causes a
drop in the turgor pressure, which makes the xylem cells to act as a
single continues column and cause uptake of water from the soil.
Xylem (Wood)

Page No. 27
 It is a complex tissues which transports sap (water and minerals).
Xylem has four types of cell-xylem fibres, xylem parenchyma, tracheids
and vessels. Vessels and trancheids are called tracheary elements
because they take part in transport of sap. Vessels are long multicellular
tubes which are formed by end to end union of several cells. Trancheids
are elongated cells with pointed ends. Both the tracheary elements have
lignified walls with pits or other thin unlignified areas for element to
element movement of water. Xylem parenchyma takes part in lateral
flow of water. Trancheids are conducting elements of non-flowering
plants. Vessels occur mostly in angiosperms where they form the main
conducting elements. The number of tracheids is small in angiosperms.
Phloem
It is complex tissues which takes part in transport of food. Phloem has
four types of cells-sieve tubes, companion cells, phloem parenchyma
and phloem fibres. Only phloem fibres are dead cells. Others are living
cells. Sieve tubes are conducting channels of phloem. They are
elongated multicellular tubular channels formed by end to end union of
numerous sieve tube elements. The end walls or septa between adjacent
sieve tube elements are bulged out and have pores. They are called sieve
plates. Sieve tube elements do not have a nucleus. Their functioning is
controlled by adjacent nucleated companion cells.

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 Difference between Xylem and Phloem

Xylem Phloem
Xylem is water or sap conducting plant It is food conducting plant tissue.
tissue.
Xylem has only one type of living It has three types of living cells.
cells.
Xylem has three types of dead cells- Phloem has only one type of dead
fibres, tracheids and vessel elements. cells, i.e., phloem fibres.
There are two types of conducting There are only one type of
elements, tracheids and vessels. conducting elements, i.e., sieve
tubes.
Vessels do not possess septa Sieve tubes have porous septa
called sieve plates.
Conduction is not influenced by Conduction is inhibited by heat,
metabolic inhibitors like heat, cold or cold and poison.
poison.
Transport occurs due to presence of Transport takes place due to
negative pressure. presence of positive pressure.

Transport of Water and Minerals:

There is a continous system of water conducting channels (vessels

and tracheids) from near the root tips to near the shoot tips. In the roots
the surface cells are in contact with soil particles and soil water. Ions
and water are absorbed from the soil. They are pulled and pushed up by
various forces to reach every cell requiring the same. The various steps
involved in transport of water and minerals are as follows:

Page No. 29
1. Mineral Absorption: It occurs in the growing parts of the root.
Both the surface or epiblema cells as well as root hairs take part in
mineral absorption. Mineral absorption is an active process which
involves expenditure of energy. Being an active process, mineral
absorption occurs against concentration gradient. It creates a
difference in the concentration of ions between the roots and the
soil, with more salts being present inside the root then in the soil .

2. Absorption of water: Root hair zone is the region of water

absorption. The inside of the root has higher osmotic concentration
than the soil solution. Root hairs are in contact with soil interspaces
having capillary water. The root hairs pick up water which is
transferred inwardly due to still high osmotic concentration. It
reaches the cells surrounding the xylem channel. Salts accumulated
in the basic part of xylem channel cause osmotic entry of water into
xylem and form column of water. It also creates the positive
pressure known as root pressure.
3. Development of negative pressure: Leaves and other aerial parts
of the plant are continuously losing water in the vapour form in the
process of transpiration. Nearly 99% of the absorbed water is lost
during transpiration. Major part of transpiration is stomatal
transpiration. Intercellular spaces of the leaves are in contact with
mesophyll cells as well as outside air through stomata. Outside air is
seldom saturated with water vapours while the intercellular spaces
are nearly always saturated with water due to evaporation from the
wet walls of mesophyll cells. Therefore, water vapours diffuse from
intercellular spaces to outside. More water vapours come from
Page No. 30
 mesophyll cells to replace them. The process continues. Loss of
water by mesophyll cells increases their suction pressure. They
withdraw water from the xylem channels. As there are billions of
mesophyll cells withdrawing water from xylem channels, water
column present in the xylem comes under tension or negative
pressure.
Transport of food and other substances
Food materials are translocated from the region of their manufacture
or storage to the region of their utilization. The region of supply of food
is called source while the area of utilization is called sink. The direction
of translocation can be downward, upward or both. The food
manufactured by leaves passes into the storage region and other sinks in
the downward direction as well as towards growing points and
developing fruits in the upward direction. The translocation nutrients
consist of soluble carbohydrates (mostly sucrose), amino acids, organic
acids, hormones and other organic solutes. Translocation occurs
thorough phloem. The channels of transport are sieve tubes (sieve cells
in non flowering plants). Sieve tubes are specialized for this purpose.
They are devoid of nuclei and internal membranes. The cytoplasm of
one tube cells is continuous with that of adjacent sieve tube cells
through sieve plates. The force required for translocation is produced by
companion cells which live adjacent to sieve tube cells.
Translocation:- Translocation is the movement of dissolved substances
from one part of plant to another through the xylem in accordance to the
concentration gradient of various mineral salts present in the soil.

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 Blood

Blood is described as a connective tissue, which provides one of the

means of communication between the cells of different parts of a body
and the external environment. It is a fluid containing living cells, which
are capable of doing metabolic changes. It performs several vital
functions of the body and hence is usually referred as the seat of the soul.
Blood constitutes about 7% of the body weight (about 5.6 Lts in a 80 kg
man). This proportion is les in women and considerable greater in
children and gradually decreasing until the adult level is reached.
Composition of the blood: - Blood of higher animals including man is a
viscous complex fluid tissue of red colour. It is made up of two main
components viz.
1) Plasma:- Plasma represents an intercellular substance of straw colour.
It constitutes about 55% of the total volume of the blood. Chemically
plasma is composed of water (90 - 92%) plasma proteins, inorganic and
organic in salts and a liquid called serum. It also contains a coagulative
substance called fibrinogen and an anticoagulant called heparin or
herudin.
2. Formed elements:- The cellular elements constitute about 45% of the
total volume of the blood. These are short and their destruction and
replacement goes on constantly during the life of an animal. These
include.

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 GREEN VALLEY EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTE

i. Red blood cells of Erythrocytes:- The erythrocytes are produced in the

bone marrow of bones. Each erythrocyte is a round biconvex disc
shaped, thinnest at the center having no nuclei at maturity. The average
diameter of each erythrocyte is 10~6m. The individual erythrocytes are
pale yellow in colour, but in aggregation they appear to be reddish in
colour. Each erythrocyte is bounded by a thin membrane composed of
lecithin and cholesterol, enclosing an elastic substance called as stroma
and an iron containing pigment called hemoglobin. The presence of
hemoglobin- the red pigment serves as the carrier of oxygen. The
average life span of erythrocytes is about 120 days in mammals, after
this time they are disposed off either by liver or by spleen.
ii. White blood cells or Leucocytes:- White blood cells do not contain any
pigment and are therefore colourless. They are larger, and fewer in
number than the RBC's (1:600). They are formed in red bone marrow
and in the lymph glands. The average life span of human leucocytes is
about 12 to 13 days. The chief function of WBC's is to provide
immunity to the body by producing special proteins called antibodies,
which protects body against the infection of bacteria, viruses and debris
etc.
The mature white blood cells are grouped in to two main categories,
granulocytes or granular leucocytes and agranulocytes or angranular
leucocytes depending upon the presence of visible granules in their
cytoplasm. The granulocytes are in turn of three types viz. Eiosinophyll,
Basinophyll and neutrophyll and the agranulocytes are of two types viz
lymphocytes and monocytes.
iii. Blood platelets:- These are small, flat granular corpuscles or colourless
cells, which are smaller than RBC. These are probably formed in the red

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bone marrow and contain a substance called thromboplast in which it

acts as one of the enzymes involved in the series of chemical changes
resulting in the clotting of blood at the site of an injury. The life span of
these corpuscles is only 2-3 days. Hence these are constantly replenished
by red bone marrow cells called as Megakaryocytes.
Function of Blood:- Blood has many functions, the most important ones are
summarized as under:-
1. Transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide: - Blood transports oxygen
from the respiratory surface and thus helps in respiration.
2. Transport of food: - Blood carries soluble food from the intestine to the
liver and body cells, where it is required for cellular activities. The nutritive
substances transported by the blood are glucose, amino acids, fats, minerals
vitamins and water
3. Transport of waste products: - Blood transports various waste products,
produced during the cellular activities of the body. These waste products
are harmful and require immediate elimination.
4. Chemical Co-ordination:- Blood distributes various hormones to
different parts of the body. These hormones are produced by the endocrine
glands of the body and helps in the co-ordination of the body.
5. Maintenance of pH:- The plasma proteins of the blood act as buffer
system and prevent any shift in the pH of the blood because of the
amphoteric properties of these proteins.
6. Water balance:- Blood maintains water balance in the blood by bringing
about constant exchange of water between the circulating blood and the
tissue fluids.
7. Transport of heat: - Blood allows transfer of heat energy from the
deeper tissue to the surface of the body.

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8. Defense against infection:- Blood protects the body from various

infections caused by the microorganisms like bacteria, viruses etc. with the
help of WBC's.

9. Temperature Regulation: - Blood maintains the body temperature by

distributing heat within the body.
10. Blood loss:- Blood prevents excessive loss of blood in an injury with
the process of blood coagulation.
The Tubes-Blood Vessels
Human blood flows inside tubes called blood vessels. Blood vessels
are of three types- arteries, veins and capillaries.
Arteries: They are blood vessels which carry blood coming from heart to
various organs of the body. Blood flows inside the arteries with jerks due to
pumping activity of the heart. As the blood is pumped into an artery, it
expands. With the flow of blood from it, the artery contracts partially.
Arteries, generally, carry oxygenated blood. Only pulmonary arteries
transport deoxygenated blood from heart to lungs. The wall of the arteries is
thick and elastic.
Veins: They are blood vessels which carry blood from various parts of the
body towards the heart. Blood flows smoothly and slowly inside veins.
Internal valves prevent back flow. Wall is less thickened and less elastic as
compared to that of arteries. Lumen is wide. Veins carry deoxygenated
blood except pulmonary veins that bring oxygenated blood from lungs to
the heart. Veins are generally superficial.

Capillaries: They are very narrow blood vessels (4-10 um) having a single
layered wall (endothelium), which form network inside body organs.

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Movement of blood is very slow (1 mm/sec) so as to provide time for

exchange of materials. The wall has very fine pores for exchange of
substances between blood and tissue fluid.

Double Circulation

It is a passage of the same blood twice through the heart first on the
right side, then on the left side in order to complete one cycle. Double
circulation has two components, pulmonary circulation and systemic
circulation.
(i) Pulmonary Circulation: It is movement of blood from heat to
the lungs and back. Deoxygenated blood of the body enters the right
auricle, passes into right ventricle which pumps it into pulmonary
arch. With the help of two separate pulmonary arteries the blood
passes into the lungs. Here the arteries break up into arterioles and
then capillaries for oxygenation. Capillaries join to form venules
and then veins. Oxygenated blood comes back to left auricle of
heart through four pulmonary veins, two from each lung.
(ii) Systemic Circulation: It is the circulation of blood between
heart and different parts of the body except lungs. Oxygenated
blood received by left auricle passes into left ventricle. The left
ventricle pumps it into aorta for supply to different body parts
including walls of the heart with the help of arteries. Inside the
organs the arteries break up into arterioles and then capillaries.
Capillaries provide oxygen and nutrients to tissues. They receive
carbon dioxide and wastes from the tissues. Capillaries unite to
form venules which join to produce veins. Veins take the
deoxygenated blood which comes back to the heart but now into the
right auricle.

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Heart
Structure of the human heart: - The human heart is a cone shaped,
muscular organ situated under the breastbone and between the lungs inside
the thoracic cavity. It is of the size of human fist
and lies slightly towards the left side of the
chest cavity. It is divided into four chambers
having two atria and two ventricles. The two
halves are separated by a thick wall called
septum. Each half is composed of two
chambers, a relatively thin walled auricle and
thick muscular ventricle. Each atrium opens into a ventricle of its own side
through an atrio ventricular aperture. The two apertures are guarded by
valves, which opens only in the ventricle and prevents the backward flow of
the blood. The left atrium and ventricle are separated by a pair of flaps
called the Bicuspid or Mitral valve. Similarly the right auricle and ventricle
are separated by three flaps called Tricuspid or Mitral valve. The atrium
receives the blood from veins and on contraction forces it in to the
ventricle, whichin turn contracts simultaneously and forces the blood into
the arteries. When the ventricles relax, the semi lunar valves of these
arteries are closed to prevent backward flow of the blood into the ventricles.

Circulation of blood through heart: - The right atrium receives

deoxygenated blood from the body mainly through two vessels or
venacavas. From the right atrium blood passes through the tricuspid valve
into the right ventricle. When the right ventricle contracts, the blood is
forced into the pulmonary artery, which carries it to the lungs for
oxygenation. After oxygenation, it is returned back to the heart through the
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pulmonary vein, which opens into the left atrium.

The left atrium passes the blood into the left
ventricle through the bicuspid valve. The ventricle
on contraction passes this oxygenated blood into the
aorta for distribution to all parts of the body.
The heart contracts about 72 times in the
similar fashion in one minute and the total volume of the blood pumped out
by the heart in every minute varies approximately in between 5 - 6 liters.
However, the course of blood circulation in man can be represented as
under: -
Oxygenated blood ------- ► Left atrium -------- ► Left ventricle ------ ► Aorta -------- ►
Arterioles Organs ----------- ► Venous capillaries ------ ► Venules(Deoxygenated blood)
--------- ► Veins --------► [Link] --------► R. Ventricle ------ ► Pulmonary artery ------ ►
Lungs (For oxygenation) --------- ► Pulmonary veins ------- ► Left atrium

Arterial Blood Pressure: - It is the pressure exerted by the blood on the

wall of the blood vessels in which it is present. It is of two types: -

a) Systolic Blood Pressure (SBP) : - It is the pressure which the blood

exerts on the wall of the blood vessels at the end of systolic contraction of
ventricles. In a normal resting adult, it is about 120 mm Hg.
b) Diastolic Blood Pressure (DBP): - It is pressure, which the blood
exerts on the wall of the arteries when the ventricles are maximally relaxed.
In normal resting adult, it is about 80 mm Hg. Blood
Note: - (Blood Pressu re in a no rmal p erson is equ al 120/80mm
Hg)

Lymph: - The tissue fluid that bathes the cells is collected in tubes and is
then called as lymph. It is filtered the blood plasma through the capillaries.
Although partly reabsorbed into the capillaries, most of it flows into a

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system of fine channels, which repeatedly join together to form a large duct
and ultimate the fluid is returned into the blood stream. This additional
system of vessels is called as lymphatic system. It runs parallel to the veins
and forms another medium of circulation in the human body. The lymph is
light yellow in colour and similar in composition to the blood plasma. It is
not only found in the lymphatic vessels and bathing the cells of the body,
but also in the various cavities of the body, such as the Coelomic cavity,
Pleural cavity, Pericardial cavity etc. where it serves as a lubricant.
Functions of lymph: - The chief functions of lymph in the human body are
mentioned as under:
1. It serves as a lubricant for the cells and tissues of the body.
2. It serves to return the interstitial fluid into blood
3. It gives the blood macromolecules of plasma proteins.
4. It carries absorbed fats and lipids from small intestines to the blood.

Excretion: - It is a process of removal of the various toxic waste products

from the body, produced in the different metabolic processes, undergoing
inside the body of an organism,. It eliminates solid, liquid and gaseous
waste products produced in the metabolism and thus maintains the relative
constancy of the body's internal environment without which life is
impossible.

Organs of excretion: - The chief organs of excretion include: -

1. Skin: - It excretes out various dissolved salts along with surplus water
from the body. The process takes place through the minute microscopic
pores of the skin mainly in the form of sweat and is referred to as
perspiration.

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Lungs: - These expel out the gaseous wastes like carbon dioxide produced
during the cellular respiration in the body through the process referred to as
expiration.
3. Kidneys: - These excrete out nitrogenous wastes produced in the body
like ammonia, urea and uric acid during various metabolic processes. These
are excreted out mainly in the form of urine.
4. Large intestine: - It excretes out the solid wastes like undigested
components of the food material produced during the process of digestion.
These excreted or defecated out through the anus.
5 Excretory system of man: - The excretory system of man consists
mainly of two kidneys, two ureters, a urinary bladder and a urethra as
shown under in the diagram.

Kidney
Structure of human kidneys: - The human kidneys are reddish brown-
paired structure, which lie along the posterior side of the abdominal wall on
either side of the vertebral column. Each kidney is bean shaped about 10cm
long, 6cm wide and 4cm broad. Each kidney is enclosed in a thin, tough,
fibrous, whitish capsule. The outer surface of each kidney is convex while
the inner one is concave. The inner side of kidney is composed of two main
regions, a dark outer region called cortex and a
lighter inner zone called medulla. The cortex contains uriniferous tubules or
nephron, which manufacture the urine; the medulla contains conical
projections called renal pyramids containing tubules, which carry urine from
nephron to the pelvis of the kidney. From this region, the urine is taken to
the urinary bladder through a long tuber called ureters as shown in the
diagram.

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Structure of Nephron: - The nephron forms the functional unit of the

kidneys. Its one end is modified into a cup shaped cavity called
Bowman's capsule, which is linked by a small single layer of squamous
epithelial cells. The rest of the nephron is differentiated into a coiled
proximal convoluted tubule, a U-shaped loop of henle and a distal
convoluted tubule. The distal tubule opens into a branching system of
collecting tubules, which finally opens into a funnel shaped renal
pelvis.

Each nephron maintains a close contact with the blood vessels. It

filters and removes the wastes from the blood, which is partially
stored in renal pelvis. The urine so formed is then passed out through
a long narrow tube called ureters and stored in a sac called urinary
bladder, where from it is excreted out of the body through urethra.
Process of Mechanism of excretion: - The entire process of excretion
involves three main processes viz.
Glomerular filtration:- When the blood enters into the glomerulus
through the afferent arteriole, a part of the water and some dissolved
constituent of the blood of low molecular weight like nitrogenous
waste, glucose and mineral salts filter out through the capillary walls

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into the surrounding Bowman's capsule by a process referred to as

Glomerular filtration. The filtered fluid or glomerular filtrate
resembles the blood plasma in its chemical composition except for the
absence of large molecules.
In man, about 180 liters of fluid is filtered from the blood plasma
through glomerular capillary walls every 24 hours.
Tabular Reabsorption:- The glomerular filtrate flows on through
the convoluted tubes, collecting tubule and then into the pelvis of the
kidney and down the ureters into the urinary bladder. As the filtrate
flows the proximal convoluted tubule some water and physiologically
important salts like glucose, amino acids, sodium chloride and sodium
bicarbonate are reabsorbed into the blood through the capillaries
around this portion leaving only the wastes to be excreted out.
Active secretion: - As the glomerular filtrate flows through the
distal convoluted tubule, the unwanted substances, which could not be
filtered out in the glomerular are actively secreted out by the tubular
walls into the filtrate from the blood.
As a result of this entire process, homeostasis of the blood is
maintained and all the waste products remained in the tubular fluid
constitute the urine, which is ready for excretion from the body.
Haemodialysis: - In patients suffering from renal failure or nephritis,
artificial measures are adopted for removing the accumulated waste
products like urea from the blood. This process is called
Haemodialysis and the apparatus used in this process as artificial
kidney.
In Haemodialysis, the blood of the patient is taken out from the
main artery and cooked to 00C. then an anticoagulant (heparin) is

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mixed with it and Dumped into the apparatus. Inside the blood flows
through tubes bounded by cellophane membrane, which is permeable
to only small molecules like urea, uric acid, creatinine and mineral
ions. The dialyzing fluid used in the apparatus a salt solution isotonic
to blood plasma, so that the blood flowing through the channels or
tubules containing wastes like urea, uric acid, creatinine etc diffuses
out in the dialyzing fluid across the cellophane membrane. This
process is called dialysis. Finally the blood coming out of artificial
kidney is warmed to body temperature and mixed with ant- heparin to
restore its normal coagulability and then pumped into the body of the
patient through a vein.

Mechanism of Excretion in plants:-

Plants do not have any mechanism to collect, transport and throw out
their waste products. They have adopted varied strategies to protect their
living cells from waste products,
i. Old leaves: Waste products are stored in older leaves which soon fall
off.
ii. Old Xylem: Resins, gums, tannins and other waste products are
deposited in the old xylem
which soon becomes nonfunctional, e.g., heart wood.
iii. Bark: Bark consists of dead cells which is peeled off periodically.
Tannins and other
wastes are deposited in the bark. Incidentally, tannins are raw
material for dyes and inks.

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iv. Central Vacuole: Most plant waste products are stored in central
vacuole of their cells.
They are unable to influence the working of cytoplasm due to
presence of a selectively permeable membrane called tonoplast.
v. Root Excretion: Some waste substances are actually excreted by the
plant in the region of
their roots.
vi. Detoxification: The toxic oxalic acid is detoxified by formation of
calcium oxalate which
gets crystallized into needles (raphides), prisms (prismatic crystals),
stars and crystal sand. Excess of calcium is also precipitated as
calcium carbonate crystals, e.g., cystolith.
vii. Salt Glands: They excrete excess salts obtained from the habitat.
Hydathodes also have an excretory function.

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