windPRO / ENERGY

Modelling of the Variation of

Air Density with Altitude through
Pressure, Humidity and Temperature

Height [m] Ratio of Moist Air Density to Dry Air Density

5000

4000

3000

2000

1000

0 Ratio [%]
99.3 99.4 99.5 99.6 99.7 99.8 99.9 100.0
RH = 25% RH = 100%
RH = 50%
RH = 75%

EMD International A/S

Niels Jernes Vej 10, DK-9220 Aalborg, Denmark
[Link] or [Link]
phone +45 9635 4444, fax. +45 9635 4446
e-mail: windpro@[Link]
Published by:

EMD International A/S

Niels Jernesvej 10
9220 Aalborg Ø
Tel: +45 9635 4444
Fax: +45 9635 4446
Email: emd@[Link]
web: [Link]

Author(s)

Morten Lybech Thøgersen, [Link].,

Document history

18-05-05 - 1st draft – Morten Lybech Thøgersen, [Link]., mt@[Link]

24-05-05 - 2nd draft – proof reading by Heidi Iversen & Thomas Sørensen, EMD
24-05-05 - 1st edition
14-12-05 - User guide added – Thomas Sørensen, EMD
06-12-10 - Corrections and update - Lasse Svenningsen, EMD
22-01-19 – Wobus approximation validity range: Corrected 50oC to -50oC (page 3-1)
12-08-20 – Typo in equation (14) corrected (minus in exponent added) – Morten Thøgersen, EMD
01-06-22 – User guide updated, and moved to the Energy Manual – Maurizio Motta, EMD

Front cover

The front cover shows the air density variation with height – calculated using the U.S. Standard Atmosphere
parameters. Also shown is the relative influence of moist air.

Copyright

This document is copyrighted EMD International A/S. Unauthorized use is prohibited.

The document may be used as reference manual only by registered users WindPRO or by users with a valid time
limited registration key to the WindPRO software system. Other use requires a written permission from EMD
International A/S.
 Table of Contents
1. Introduction 1-1
References 1-1

2. Dry Air Density Variation with Altitude 2-1

Geopotential Altitude 2-1
The Perfect Gas Law 2-2
Temperature Variation in the Atmosphere 2-2
The Hydrostatic Equation 2-3
Air Density Calculations with Pressure Changes 2-3
U.S. Standard Atmosphere 2-3
References 2-4

3. Density of Moist Air 3-1

Density of Moist Air – Governing Equation 3-1
Saturation Vapor Pressure 3-2
Different Measures of Humidity 3-2
Calculating the Air Density of Moist Air 3-2
Sample Calculation with US Standard Atmosphere Parameters 3-3
Air Density Variation with Humidity and Pressure (alternative equations) 3-4
References 3-5
 1. Introduction

1. Introduction
The air density calculations have been subjected to international
standardization, presumably because the air density influences the lifting
capacity of aircrafts. The air density varies with altitude and
temperature. For wind turbines, the air density is a key parameter when
estimating wind energy, as the energy output from the WTGs
proportionally depends on this parameter. The estimated power output
from the WTG, P, is given in the equation below.

P = 0.5    w 3  A  C e (1)

where P is the produced power output [W]

 is the air density [kg/m3]
w is the wind speed [m/s]
A is the area swept by the rotor [m2]
Ce is the total efficiency of the WTG at the given wind speed

While the energy calculations typically are calculations over a large time scale, the air density must be
given as the expected mean density over the period considered. As an alternative to using a constant air
density – which is reasonable assumption in most terrains - WindPRO offers a model to take the variations
in air density with air temperature and pressure into account. This model could be used in mountainous
terrains.

The model for the varying dry air density is mainly based on equations in the US Standard Atmosphere
Model from 1976 [1]. Since moist air is less dense than dry air, also a model for including the variation in
humidity is also implemented. This is based on equations from M. Salby [2].

The WindPRO model offers the option for the user to set site-specific temperatures, humidity and pressure
parameters – thus enabling a detailed air density description for turbines situated with very varying hub-
heights.

References

[1] U.S. Standard Atmosphere, 1976, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.
[2] Murry L. Salby: Fundamentals of Atmospheric Physics, Academic Press, 1996, Elsevier Science

Page 1-1
 2. Dry Air Density Variation with Altitude

2. Dry Air Density Variation with Altitude

This chapter gives an introduction to the physical and

theoretical considerations needed when developing
the set of equations describing the variation of dry air
with altitude.

Geopotential Altitude Cronalaght Wind Farm, Ireland.

Modelling of the standard atmosphere is typically done in terms of the geopotential altitude. This is due to a
simplification of the equations describing the atmosphere. The idea behind the geopotential altitude is that a
small change in geopotential altitude will cause the same change in gravitational potential energy as the
same change in geometric altitude at sea level. This is mathematically expressed as:

g (Z )dZ = GdH (1)

where g(Z) is the acceleration of gravity (decreases at increasing altitudes)

Z is the geopotential altitude
G is the acceleration of gravity at sea level
dH is the geometric altitude

The value of the gravity varies with height, and is found to follow the equation below

2
g (Z )  E 
=  (2)
G Z+E

where E is the radius of the earth (6535 km)

Combining the two equations above and integrating yields give an expression for the geopotential altitude.

2
g  E 
dH = dZ =   dZ
G Z+E
H Z 2
 E  EZ

H = dH = 
   dZ =
Z+E E+Z
(3), (4), (5)
0 0
EH
Z=
E+H

The relation between geopotential height and geometric height is used to calculate the table below. It is
seen, that the difference between the two altitude measures is marginal for the lower levels of the
atmosphere where wind turbines are situated. Thus, in WindPRO we approximate the geopotential height
with the geometric height.

Page 2-1
 2. Dry Air Density Variation with Altitude

Geometric Height, Geopotential Height, Differnce

Z [m] H [m] %
100 99.99 0.002
500 499.96 0.008
1000 999.84 0.016
5000 4996.1 0.078
10000 9984.3 0.157
50000 49610 0.796
100000 98451 1.573
Table 1: Relation between geometric and geopotential height

The Perfect Gas Law

The air density may be estimated from the perfect gas law.

P  V = n  Rair  T (6)

where P is the pressure [Pa]

V is the volume considered [m3]
n is the number of moles
Rair is the specific gas constant for dry air (287.05 J/(kgK) )
T is the temperature [K]

If the density, air, is defined from the number of molecules in a certain volume,  = n / V , then the density
may now be expressed from the perfect gas law as:

P
 air = (7)
R air  T

The specific gas constant for dry air relates to the universal gas constant, R, and the mean molecular weight
of air:

Rair = R M air (8)

where R is the universal gas constant = 8.31432 J/(Kmol)

Mair is 28.964410-3 (kg/mol) (assumed constant up to approximately 86 km altitude)

Temperature Variation in the Atmosphere

Within an atmospheric layer, the temperature variation is approximated as a linear function of the
geopotential altitude.

T = Tb + L(H − H b ) (9)

where L is the temperature lapse rate (temperature gradient) – which typically is negative for
increasing heights
Tb is the temperature at the base of the layer
Hb is the geopotential altitude at the base level
H is the geopotential height

Page 2-2
 2. Dry Air Density Variation with Altitude

The Hydrostatic Equation

Hydrostatic modelling of the atmosphere is a reasonable approximation – even if the atmosphere is in

motion. This is because the vertical displacements of air and their time derivatives are small compared to
the forces in the hydrostatic equation – see M. Salby [1]. The basic hydrostatic equation is

dP = − g ( Z )dZ
(10)
= − GdH

Air Density Calculations with Pressure Changes

Using the hydrostatic equation with the perfect gas law and the stepwise linear temperature variation
assumption, the hydrostatic equation yield:

MG P
dP = − dH (11)
R air (Tb + L( H − H b ))

Integrating the equation gives the relation between base variables and the ones in the specified height [2]

P G
1 MG 1
 P
dP = −  Rair (Tb + L(H − H b )) dH
Pb Hb

P  − GM ( H − H b ) 
= exp   for L = 0 and (12), (13), (14)
Pb  RTb 
GM
P  Tb + L( H − H b )  RL
=  for L  0
Pb  Tb 

US Standard Atmosphere

The US Standard Atmosphere, published in 1986, holds a model for the development of pressure and
density with altitude over the sea level. The model used in WindPRO is based on the specification for the
lower 11 km of the atmosphere.

In the US Standard Atmosphere, seven fundamental layers are defined in the lower 86 kilometres of the
atmosphere:

h1 [km] 0 11 20 32 47 51 71
h2 [km] 11 20 32 47 51 71 84.852
L (dT/dh) [K/km] -6.5 0.0 1.0 2.8 0.0 -2.8 -2.0

The heights are given in geopotential heights. 84.852 km corresponds to a geometric height of 86 km.
Standard values of other important parameters are:

Page 2-3
 2. Dry Air Density Variation with Altitude

Sea level pressure, p0 101325 N/m2

Sea level temperature, T0 288.15 K
Hydrostatic constant 34.1631947 K/km

The standard sea level density that is calculated from the settings above is 1.225 kg/m 3. The variation of
dry air density and pressure - using the US standard atmosphere parameters - are shown in the Figure 1 and
Figure 2 below.

Figure 1: Dry Air Density Variation. Figure 2: Dry Air Pressure Variation-

References
[1] Murry L. Salby: Fundamentals of Atmospheric Physics, Academic Press, 1996, Elsevier Science
[2] Ralph L. Carmichael, The Hydrostatic Equations, 2003 (internet note, [Link]/[Link])

Page 2-4
 3. Density of Moist Air

3. Density of Moist Air

Even if moist air is less dense than dry air, the water
vapor seldom represents more than a few percent of
the air mass.

The model for moist air is based on the Dalton law

for partial pressures, and is included in WindPRO in
order to complete the description of the air density
variation. The description is based on M. Salby [1],
and is valid for air not condensed.

In WindPRO the user may input three different

measures of the vapor:
Brokilde Wind Farm, Denmark.
• Relative humidity
• Dew point temperature
• Specific humidity

The user inputs are – however – always converted into a relative humidity – which is saved with the
WindPRO project.

Density of Moist Air – Governing Equation

The density is determined as a mixture of dry air molecules and water vapour molecules

Pd (T ) Pv (T )
 air = + (1)
Rd T Rv T

where air is the density [kg/m3]

Pd is the partial pressure of dry air [Pa]
Pv is the water vapour partial pressure [Pa]
Rd is the specific gas constant for dry air [J/(kgK)] ) = 287.05
Rv is the specific gas constant for water vapour [J/(kgK)] = 461.495
T is the temperature [K]

Saturation Vapor Pressure

In order to calculate the density of moist air,

we need to know the saturated vapour
pressure. This concept is related to the
process of evaporation. Considering a
closed container with water and air, the
evaporation process will proceed until there
are as many molecules returning to the
liquid as there are escaping. When this
balance is achieved then the vapour is said
to be saturated (and the corresponding
pressure denoted saturated vapour
pressure). When the saturated vapour
Figure 1: Variation of the saturation vapor pressure.

Page 3-1
 3. Density of Moist Air

pressure is equal to the atmospheric pressure, then the liquid is boiling.

In WindPRO, the saturated vapour pressure is calculated using an approximating polynomial, suggested by
Herman Wobus. The polynomial was fitted from data from the Smithsonian Meteorological Tables by
Roland List (6th edition), and is valid for temperature ranges from -50 C to 100 C. A graph of the
saturated vapour pressure variation with temperature is found in Figure 1.

Es (T ) = es 0 / p(T )8
p(T ) = c0 + T (c1 + T (c2 + T (c3 + T (c4 + T (c5 + T (c6 + T (c7 + T (c8 + T  c9 ))))))))
es 0 = 6.1078 (2)
c0 = 0.99999683  10 0
c1 = -0.9082695 1  10 -2
c2 = 0.78736169  10 -4

c3 = -0.6111795 8  10 - 6 c4 = 0.43884187  10 -8 c5 = -0.2988388 5  10 -10

c6 = 0.21874425  10 -12 c7 = -0.1789232 1  10 -14 c8 = 0.11112018  10 -16
c9 = -0.3099457 1  10 -19

where T is the temperature in [C]

Es is the saturated vapour pressure in [mb]

Different Measures of Humidity

The actual vapour pressure is now determined from either the dew point or the relative humidity. If the dew
point, Tdew, is known, then the actual vapor pressure is simply

Pv (T ) = Es (Tdew ) (3)

If the relative humidity (RH) is known then the actual vapour pressure simply determined from the
definition of the relative humidity. I.e. the relative humidity is simply the ratio of actual vapor pressure to
the saturation vapor pressure at a given temperature.

Pv (T ) = RH  Es (T ) (4)

The specific humidity is the relative concentration of vapor. It is defined from the following equation

SH =  v  = mv / m (5)

where v is the absolute concentration of vapor (v = 1/vv)

vv is the specific volume of vapor (vv=V/mv, V is the volume and mv is the mass of the vapor)
 is the density of the air
mv and m is the masses of vapor and the mixture

In case that the specific humidity is known (SH) then the vapor pressure is calculated from (see M. Salby
[1]):

r = SH (1 − SH ) and
(6)
Pv = ( r ε )  P

where r is the mixing ratio

 is the ratio of molar weights  0.622

Page 3-2
 3. Density of Moist Air

Calculating the Air Density of Moist Air

The specific gas constant of the mixture of dry and moist air is expressed as:

R mix = (1 − SH )  R d + SH  R v
SH
= (1 − SH )  R d +  Rd (7)

1 
= (1 +  − 1 SH )  R d
 

Using this new gas constant with the equations (13) and (14) established in the previous Chapter 2, enables
us to calculate the density of moist air. Note, it is an implicit assumption that the gas constant of the mixed
gas remains constant through varying heights. This is presumably a reasonable assumption – because the
correction due to moisture is very small.

Sample Calculation with US Standard Atmosphere Parameters

In the Figure 2 and Figure 3 the air density variation with height is shown for the U.S. Standard
Atmosphere, 1976. Included are also different measures of relative humidity – which are shown to have
only a quite small influence.

Figure 2: Moist Air Density Variation. Figure 3: Moist Air Pressure Variation.

In Figure 4 the relative difference between dry air and moist air is shown for the first 5000 meters above
the sea level. It is observed that the difference is below 0.7%. Again, the figure is calculated using the US
Standard Atmosphere parameters.

Page 3-3
 3. Density of Moist Air

Height [m] Ratio of Moist Air Density to Dry Air Density

5000

4000

3000

2000

1000

0 Ratio [%]
99.3 99.4 99.5 99.6 99.7 99.8 99.9 100.0
RH = 25% RH = 100%
RH = 50%
RH = 75%

Figure 4: Ratio of Moist Air to Dry Air.

Air Density Variation with Humidity and Pressure (alternative equations)

The CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics [2] holds an alternative description of the of the moist air
density variation with temperature, pressure and vapor pressure. The relation is:

 B − 0.7383 e) / 760 
D = 1.2929  (273 .13 / T )( (8)

where T is the absolute temperature (degK)

B is the barometric pressure (mmHG)
e is the vapor pressure (mmHG)

This equation (8) is now used to make a sensitivity study of the influence of moist air. This is done by
calculating the ratio of moist air density to dry air density. This calculation is shown – for temperatures 5oC
- 20 oC in the figures below. From the Figure 5 - Figure 8 it is observed, that the density influence of moist
air is less than 1.7 percent for the considered temperature range. Higher temperatures yield a higher
influence. For wind turbine applications the air moisture density influence could – in most cases – be
ignored (i.e. it is a reasonable assumption to use the dry air properties).

Figure 5: Density Ratio for Temperature = 5 deg C in [%].

Page 3-4
 3. Density of Moist Air

Figure 6: Density Ratio for Temperature = 10 deg C in [%].

Figure 7: Density Ratio for Temperature = 15 deg C in [%].

Figure 8: Density Ratio for Temperature = 20 deg C in [%].

References
[1] Murry L. Salby: Fundamentals of Atmospheric Physics, Academic Press, 1996, Elsevier Science
[2] CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, CRC Press Inc., 60th edition, 1981,

Page 3-5