athe CHAPTER 1: THE ATMOSPHERE ‘The performance characteristics of airplanes and engines depend on the properties of the atmo- sphere in which they operate, In this chapter those properties of the atmosphere which are important to the determination of airplane and engine performance are presented. Applications to various air- plane and engine performance scenarios are given 11 ATMOSPHERIC FUNDAMENTALS The atmosphere consists of a gaseous mixture (called the air) of approximately 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen and 1% other gases, water vapor being one of those. The actual composition of the. atmosphere varies with geographical lovations and altitudes. However, in most applications to con- ventional aerodynamics, the atmosphere can be regarded as a homogeneous gas of uniform composi- tion. The air may therefore be regarded as a gas which satisfies the perfect gas law: P = gRT (ul) where: Pp = atmospheric pressure in Ibs/ft?, or N/m? © = air density in slugs/ft? , or kg/m} 2 = acceleration of gravity in ft/sec? , or m/sec? R = gas constant (for dry air: R = 53.35 f/°R, or 29.26 m/°K) T = absolute temperature in °R, or°K OR = °F + 459.79, °K = °C + 273.15) Eqn (1.1) is also referred to as the equation of state. Note that when using Eqn (1.1) the tempera ture, T, must be the absolute temperature of the gas, When a significant amount of moisture (water vapor) is present in the atmosphere, the air density will change. To determine how water vapor affects air density, consider a given volume filled with a dry air and water vapor mixture. Daiton’s law of partial pressures (see Ref.1.1, p. 496) siates that the ob- served pressure, p, of the mixture equals the sum of the dry air pressure, p and the water vapor pres- sure, py : P= Pa + Py (1.2) Also, since the total mass of air inside the volume is equal to the sum of the dry air mass and the water vapor mass, the observed density of the mixture is given by: Chapter 1 3‘The Atmosphere @ =o to (13) In Eqn (1.3) itis also assumed that the distribution of masses of dry air and water vapor in the volume is uniform. By using the perfect gas law of Eqn (1.1) itis possible to show that the density of the mixture is given by: ee ee e = aRT 7 ae an For water vapor or steam, Ry = 85.89 £t/°R , (see Ref. 1.2, pages 4-23). It follows that R < Ry so that the second term in Eqn (1.4) is negative. Therefore, the density of a mixture of dry air and water vapor is less than that of dry air. Normally the effect of water vapor on air density is small. To illustrate this fact, assume that the observed temperature and pressure of a mixture of dry air and water vapor are 90 degrees F and 2,116.2 Ibs/ft2 respectively. If the relative humidity {is 100%, the water vapor pressure can be found to be 100.6 Ibs/it2, (see Ref. 1.2, p. 4-80). The densi- ty of the mixture then follows from Eqn (1.4) as: = 1 2 - - 3 © = srqecaatreegy7 21162 — 100,6x0.379) = 0.002203 slugs/ft (4s) The corresponding dry air density is 0.002243 slugs/ft3. The density reduction in this case is therefore only 1.8%. Despite this small effect of water vapor on air density, water vapor does have ‘a significant effect on engine performance and on supersonic aerodynamics. The effect of humidity (water vapor) on engine performance is discussed in Chapter 6. A discussion of the effect of water vapor on supersonic aerodynamics is beyond the scope of this text. The interested reader may wish to consult Ref. 1.3. 1.2 THE INTERNATIONAL STANDARD ATMOSPHERE For purposes of airplane aerodynamics and performance calculations the atmosphere is divided into four regions as shown in Figure 1.1. ‘To provide a basis for comparing the performance characteristics of airplanes and to allow for the calibration of altimeters, itis desirable to have standard properties of the atmosphere whieh rep- resent the so-called “average” conditions. Such standard properties have been established by the Intemational Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO). These standard atmospheric characteristics are generally used by airplane and engine manufacturers around the world. In the U.S.A. there is a so~ called U.S. Standard Atmosphere as well. The U.S. standard atmosphere is the same as the ICAO atmosphere for altitudes below 65,617 ft. This standard atmosphere is representative of the atmo- spheric characteristics in the region of the mi latitudes of the northern hemisphere. The properties of the U.S. standard atmosphere are given in both English and Metric units in Appendix A. 4 Chapter 1‘The Atmosphere Exosphere-ratified 300-600 miles Ionosphere Positive temperature gradient 50-70 miles Stratosphere Zero temperature gradient ‘Troposphere Negative temperature gradient Sea-level (s.l.) Tropopause (36,089 ft) Figure 1.1 The Four Regions of the Atmosphere According to the standard atmosphere the standard sea-level properties of the atmosphere arc as follows: Bp = 32.17 ft/sec? = 9.806 m/sec? (1.6) Po = 29.92 in Hg = 2,116.2 Ibs/{t? = 1.013x10° N/m? (6b) To = 59°F = SI8.7°R = 15°C = 288,29 (1.60) Qq = 0.002377 slug/ft? = 1.225 Ke/m? (16d) For subsonic airplanes only the troposphere and the stratosphere are important, 1.2.1 TEMPERATURE VARIATION WITH ALTITUDE In the standard atmosphere it is assumed that below an altitude of 36,089 ft, there is a constant drop of temperature of 0.00356616 deg. F per foot of altitude, This is referred to as the lapse rate of the atmosphere. Therefore, the temperature al any given altitude, h, can be written as: T=T, +ah-nh) ay where: a = the lapse rate of the atmosphere = ~ 0.00356616 °F/tt T, is the reference temperature at altitude hy hi is the reference altimde Atsca-level, hy = O and Ty = Ty. Above an altitude of 36,089 ft in the stratosphere, the standard temperature is constant and roughly equal to -69.7 deg. F. Chapter 1 5‘The Atmosphere 1.2.2. PRESSURE AND DENSITY VARIATION WITH ALTITUDE To determine the variation of pressure and density with altitude consider the vertical force equi- librium of a small sample of air in the atmosphere. Figure 1.2 illustrates the forces acting on this cube of air. Because the three forces are in equilibrinm in a quiescent atmosphere it follows: pdxdy — (p + dp)dxdy — ogdxdydh = 0 8) (p + dp)dxdy dh == ggdxdydh dp = ~ ggdh as) Division of Eqn (1.9) by Eqn (1.1) yields: op — dh ? RE (1.10) Because the temperature behavior in the troposphere differs from that in the stratosphere, (wo cases must be considered: from sea—level (0 36,089 ft and from 36,089 to 65,617 ft. vel to 36,089 ft Differentiation of Eqn (1.7) results in: iT = adh ay Substitution of this result into Eqn (1.10) yields: # = - a ayy 6 Chapter 1‘The Atmosphere Eqn (1.12) can be integrated to provide the following relationship between the pressure at any altitude and the pressure at a reference altitude: t) wo {! +h v9} a.13) From the perfect gas relation of Eqn (1.1) it is now possible to show that the relationship between the density at any altitude and the density at a reference altitude is as follows: & 6) cw Of particular interest are the relationships between temperature, pressure and density at sealev- el to those at an arbitrary altitude: ~ 6.875x107Sh (LS) (1.16) © Lg = 942561 &ro=e aan strat 65,617 Because the temperature in the stratosphere is a constant-69.7 deg. F itis possible to integrate Eqn (1.10) directly to yield: py _ (hon n( 2) (hat (1.18) By taking the reference altitude to be 36,089 ft itis found that fe =f CH) & a ) cat) However, Eqns (1.15) through (1.17) show that at 36,089 ft: Fal = 8 = 0.75189 while: Try = 390°R (1.20) 0 Chapter 1The Atmosphere Pet _ g82561 2 at = 8 0.2234 (1.21) Pee. g.2ser = a = 8 0.2971 (1.22) Fromm Eqns (1.21) and (1.22) it can be found that: 2 = 02734 el (1.23) (1.24) Equations (1.15), (1.16), (1.17), (1.23) and (1.24) have been used to compute the standard atmo- spheric properties which are tabulated in Appendix A 1.2.3 BAROMETRIC ALTIMETERS Barometric altimeters are commonly used in airplanes to measure barometric altitude. Basically analtimeterisa pressure gauge which translates the measured pressure into an altitude reading which corresponds to that predicted by the standard atmosphere. To calibrate altimetess the characteristics of the standard atmosphere are used. Reference 1.4 may be consulted for a fairly detailed treatment of various types of altimetcr. The reader should also understand the difference between instruments which can determine height above ground, such as Radar Altimeters, Ground Proximity Warning Systems (GPWS) and Global Positioning System (GPS), and barometric sensors, such as barometric altimeters. Figure 1.3 shows the faceplate of a typical barometric and radar altimeter. The setting knob on the lower left of the barometric instrument is used to rotate the scale of the altimeter so that the instruments reads the correct altitude corresponding to local reference pressure conditions. ‘The radar altimeter does not require such a setting knob. Instead it is equipped with a test knob, to test it When an altimeter is "set" to a pressure of 29.92 "Hg (the standard atmospheric pressure at sea— level) the altitude it reads is defined as the "pressure altitude”. ‘The altitude corresponding toa given density in the standard atmosphere is defined as the “densi- tyaltitude”, The altitude corresponding toa given temperature in the standard atmosphere is defined as the “temperature altitude” a Chapter 1‘The Atmosphere Courtesy of: Bendix—King Barometric Altimeter Radar Altimeter ALTITUDE paras 819 5 “ UT Figure 1.3 Typical Faceplate of a Barometric and Radar Altimeter In an atmosphere with standard conditions all three altitudes are exactly the same. However, in a non-standard atmosphere all three altitudes will be different! The following examples are pres ented to enhance the reader's understanding of atmospheric characteristics, Example 1.1. A standard altimeter indicates 15,000 ft when the ambient temperature is 35 deg. F. Calculate the density altitude and the temperature altitude. Solution: From Table Al at h = 15,000 ft, the standard temperature is 5.5 deg. F. Therefore, the atmosphere is not standard, Since the altimeter is a pressure gauge. it will read the correct pres- sure, From Table A the correct pressure at that altitude is 144x8.294 = 1,194 psf. The actual density therefore is: PB. 1,194 P= 3 © aRT ~ SRTTSTGGS FT TTT) ~ 0.001406 slug fe From Table A1 the standard altitude corresponding to this density is approximately 17,000 ft A more accurate calculation of the density altitude can be done as follows. From Eqn (1.17): Chapter 1 9‘The Atmosphere 2 _ 0.001406 _ © = oy = ooo2s77 ~ 95915 From Eyn (1.15): 8 = 1 ~ GR7SKIO-~ Dgensiy = FB ‘Therefore: = 1 = 0.88393 baasiy = “Eire 16,883 ft This result is close to the 17,000 ft interpolated from Table Al (Appendix A). ‘To find the temper- ature altitude, Eqn (1.15) is used again: T= 4947 = =l- -6; 1, 7 3187 0.95373 = 1 — 6.875x10~®xhemperatae From this itis found that: Mremperure = 6,730 ft. Note the large difference between tempcra- ture and density altitudes in this example. During flight ests, when measurements are normally conducted under non-standard atmospher- ic conditions, engine performance data and airplane performance data are all transformed to what these data would have been under standard atmospheric conditions. Example 1.2 Because density cannot be measured directly, the density is normally inferred by calculation from measurements of static, ambient temperature and static, ambient pressure. Caleu- late the density ratio, o if measurements show that the altimeter reads 5,000 ft and the ambient, static air temperature is 80 deg. F. Solution: From Eqn (1.20): 90 + 459.7 _ 9 = 0 ART = 1.0405 From Table A1 it is found that 6 = 0.8320. Therefore, from Eqn (1.1): P\(To) & = o= le) 8 0.7996 1.2.4 VISCOSITY Another atmospheric property which is important in aerodynamics and performance is the vis- cosity of the air. Because of the close relationship between viscosity and the behavior of the boundary layer in air flow around an airplane, a discussion of viscosity of the atmosphere is given in Chapter 2. 10 Chapter 1‘The Atmosphere 1.3 SUMMARY FOR CHAPTER 1 In this chapter the most important properties of the atmosphere were derived and discussed. It ‘was shown that with the perfect gas law simple equations can be derived from which standard atmo- spheric conditions can be predicted. It was also shown that with the help of local measurements of temperature and pressure actual atmospheric conditions can be reconstructed. In this manner a meaningful comparison of airplane and engine performance based on in-flight measurements can always be arrived at. 14 PROBLEMS FOR CHAPTER 1 11 Calculate the pressure, density and temperature at 30,500 ft and at 61,500 ft in the standard atmosphere. Compare the results of the calculations with values interpolated from Table Al. 12 Onahot day, the measured temperature and pressure are 38 deg. C and 29.0 in, Hg respec— tively. Calculate the density ratio and the density. 1.3 A standard altimeter reads 14,000 ft when the ambient temperature is 35 deg. F. What is the density altitude? 14 Atacertain altitude, a standard altimeter reads 10,000 ft. If the density altitude is 8,000 ft, find the true temperature at that altitude. 15 Anairplanc is fitted with an altimeter which is calibrated according to the standard atmo~ sphere. On a certain day the pressure at sea-level is found to be 2,130 Ihs/ft2 and the mea~ sured temperature is 50 deg. F. The lapse rate of the temperature is 0.0039 deg. R per foot of altitude. If on this same day, the altimeter reads 15,000 ft, what is the true altitude of the airplane above sea-level? 1.6 Analtimeter which is set to 29.92 in. Hg reuds zero feet when the airplane is on the ground at an airport which is 1,500 ft above sea-level. The following data are taken during a climb if this airplane: Pressure Altitude, Temperature, T Pressure Altitude Temperature, T inf in deg. F in ft indeg. F 0 2 6,000 -1 1,000 17 7,000, 5 2,000 14 8,000 -9 3,000 10 9,000 -13 4,000 7 10,000 no reading 5,000, 2 If the altimeter reads 10,000 ft what will be the actual altitude of the airplane above sea— level? (Hint: Use an average lapse rate.) Chapter 1 uLs Lt 12 13 14 ‘The Atmosphere REFERENCES FOR CHAPTER 1 Joos, G. and Freeman, I.M.; Theoretical Physics; Hafner Publishing Company, N.Y., 1950. Baumeister, T. and Marks, L.S. (Editors); Standard Handbook for Mechanical Engineers; McGraw Hill Book Co., Seventh Edition, 1967. Emmons, H.W. (Editor); Fundamentals of Gas Dynamics; page 526, Volume III in the series of High Speed Aerodynamics and Jet Propulsion; Princeton University Press, 1958. McKinley, J.L. and Bent, R.D.; Basic Science for Aerospace Vehicles; McGraw Hill Book Co., Fourth Edition, N.Y., 1972. LOCKHEED SR-71 BLACKBIRD Courtesy: Lockheed-Martin Cri pede ach 3 “ee clings 000s Ws 5.900 wo Maximum speed: csied Norma range: esd inp wet lid amber podied by Laced dssitod 381 7in (16.9 m) | —*—_- G27 m Chapter 1