ENERGY PRODUCTION BY

A PV ARRAY
Prepared By

Dr. Haytham Gamal

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ANNUAL ENERGY PRODUCTION
 The power produced by a PV system depends on a
range of factors which need to be examined when
the system is designed.
 Such analysis is conveniently carried out by
looking at the total annual energy produced by the
system.
 A comprehensive study has identified seven factors
influencing the annual performance of PV modules.
11/2/2024
Dr. Haytham Gamal
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ANNUAL ENERGY PRODUCTION
 The factors influencing the annual performance of
PV modules:
1. Cumulative solar irradiance.
2. Module power rating at STC.
3. Operating temperature.
4. Maximum power point voltage dependence on
irradiance level.
5. Soiling.
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Dr. Haytham Gamal
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ANNUAL ENERGY PRODUCTION
 The factors influencing the annual performance of
PV modules.
6. Variation in solar spectrum.
7. Optical losses when the sun is at a high angle
of incidence (AOI).

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Dr. Haytham Gamal
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ANNUAL ENERGY PRODUCTION
1. Cumulative solar irradiance:
▪ Long-term irradiance profiles depend on surface
orientation and possibly tracking.
▪ This factor depends on the location.
▪ Varies between a reduction by about 25% for a
vertical surface to over 30% increase for two axis
tracking, in comparison with a latitude-tilt fixed
system.
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Dr. Haytham Gamal
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ANNUAL ENERGY PRODUCTION
2. Module power rating at STC:
▪ Analysis of several PV technologies has been
carried out for the same power rating.

▪ It is observed that all technologies were

equivalent in terms of the expected annual
energy production within 5% calculation error.

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Dr. Haytham Gamal
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ANNUAL ENERGY PRODUCTION
3. Operating temperature:
▪ The annual production can be reduced due to the
operating temperature by a factor between 2%
and 10%, depending on
a. Module design.
b. Wind speed.
c. Mounting technique.
d. Ambient temperature.
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Dr. Haytham Gamal
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ANNUAL ENERGY PRODUCTION
4. Maximum power point voltage dependence
on irradiance level:
▪ Modules tend to have a value of the maximum
power point voltage larger at low irradiance
levels than at the standard test conditions.
▪ This fact can result in an additional 10% increase
in annual energy production.

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Dr. Haytham Gamal
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ANNUAL ENERGY PRODUCTION
5. Soiling:
▪ Soiling may account for up to a 10% of reduction of
the annual energy production.
6. Variation in solar spectrum:
▪ The effects of the hourly variation of the solar
spectrum almost cancel out in a yearly basis.
▪ Amorphous silicon technology has the highest
sensitivity to this effect.
11/2/2024
▪ The observed changes usually remain under 3%. Dr. Haytham Gamal
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ANNUAL ENERGY PRODUCTION
7. Optical losses when the sun is at a high angle of
incidence (AOI):
▪ Due to the increased reflectance of the cover glass of
the PV modules for AOI greater than 60º.
▪ However, the effect on a long-term basis is relatively
small (typically under 5%)
▪ Although it may have larger effect on a seasonal
basis (close to 10% for a vertical inclination)
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Dr. Haytham Gamal
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PEAK SOLAR HOURS
 The initial approximate analysis and design of
a PV system is usually based on Peak Solar
Hours.
 The magnitude of PSH is equal to the length of
an equivalent day with a constant irradiance
equal to the 1-sun intensity (1 kW/m2), resulting
in the same value of the daily radiation.
11/2/2024  PSH has units of time and expressed in hours.
Dr. Haytham Gamal
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PEAK SOLAR HOURS
 It has the same numerical value as the total daily
radiation in kWh/m2-day.
 Useful for flat-plate (non-concentrating) arrays.
 Accordingly, the total generation of a PV array
exposed to solar radiation a whole year can be
estimated as
365

𝐸𝐴 = ෍(𝑃𝑆𝐻)𝑖 𝑃0 .
𝑖=1
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Dr. Haytham Gamal
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PEAK SOLAR HOURS
▪ (PSH)i : Value of the parameter PSH for day i.
▪ P0: Nominal array power under STC.
 For arrays operating at the maximum power point, the
normalized instantaneous power output depends on
temperature and irradiance, and the above equation is
therefore an approximation.
 A better estimate of the annual generation can be obtained
by a model which uses actual values of the ambient
temperature and estimates the cell operating temperature
11/2/2024 using the NOCT concept. Dr. Haytham Gamal
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PEAK SOLAR HOURS
▪ Figure shows the error involved in the use of this
equation rather than taking into account the full
temperature and irradiance dependence of the array
power output.

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Dr. Haytham Gamal
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PEAK SOLAR HOURS
 Example
 Given the average PSH can help in calculating
the number of solar panels required.
▪ Peak sun hours = 4
▪ Home used 10,000 kWh of electricity last
year.
▪ 10,000kWh / 365 days = 27.4 kWh per day
▪ 27.4 kWh per day / 4 PSH per day = 6.85 kWh.
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Dr. Haytham Gamal
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NOMINAL ARRAY POWER
 For larger D.C systems:
▪ Usually includes an inverter.
▪ Power rating more than 1 kW.
▪ PV arrays operating at the MPP.
▪ The voltage is controlled by the maximum
power point tracker (MPPT) to follow the
optimum maximum power point voltage Vm.
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Dr. Haytham Gamal
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NOMINAL ARRAY POWER
 For smaller stand-alone systems:
▪ Consisting of a charge regulator and a battery.
▪ The array voltage is controlled by the load.
▪ The array delivers power at a voltage close to the
battery voltage Vbat.

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Dr. Haytham Gamal
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NOMINAL ARRAY POWER
 For smaller stand-alone systems:

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Dr. Haytham Gamal
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NOMINAL ARRAY POWER
 For smaller stand-alone systems:
▪ A standard PV module consisting of 36
crystalline silicon cells has evolved from the
need to charge a 12 V battery.
▪ In practical usage, the module then operates
in the linear part of its I -V characteristic and
supplies approximately the same current Isc.
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Dr. Haytham Gamal
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NOMINAL ARRAY POWER
 For smaller stand-alone systems:
▪ Losses in the charge regulator can often be
neglected and hence, the voltage drop is
small.
▪ The power delivered by the array to the
battery and load in parallel connection is
then
11/2/2024 𝑃𝐴 = 𝑉𝑏𝑎𝑡 𝐼𝑠𝑐 . Dr. Haytham Gamal
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TEMPERATURE DEPENDENCE OF ARRAY
POWER OUTPUT
 The principal effect of temperature on the PV
array output comes from the temperature
dependence of the open-circuit voltage.

𝑑𝑉𝑜𝑐
𝑉𝑜𝑐 𝑇𝑐 = 𝑉𝑜𝑐 𝑇𝑛 + 𝑇𝑐 − 25 .
𝑑𝑇
▪ Tc: Cell temperature.
▪ dVoc/dT : Voltage temperature coefficient.
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Dr. Haytham Gamal
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TEMPERATURE DEPENDENCE OF ARRAY
POWER OUTPUT
𝑑𝑉𝑜𝑐 𝑉𝑜𝑐 − 𝐸𝑔𝑜 − 𝛾𝐾𝐵 𝑇𝑐
= ∗ 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑒.
𝑑𝑇 𝑇𝑐
▪ EgO: Energy gap (extrapolated linearly to 0 K)
▪ kBTc: Thermal energy in electron volts.
▪ γ = 3 for silicon.
▪ For a typical module of 36 crystalline silicon cells,
a voltage temperature coefficient of approximately
11/2/2024 -80 mV/C. Dr. Haytham Gamal
 23 MODULE ORIENTATION
 Fixed Tilt Arrays:
▪ PV generator output depends on solar radiation
incident on the inclined panels of the PV array.
▪ The array orientation will be constrained by the
nature of the support system.
▪ The orientation of a building integrated array will
normally be dictated by the orientation of the roof
or facade where the array is to be installed.
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Dr. Haytham Gamal
 24 MODULE ORIENTATION
 Fixed Tilt Arrays:
▪ For a freestanding PV array, the array
orientation is to maximize the energy collection
by the inclined PV panels.
▪ This will frequently depend on the seasonal
nature of the load.
▪ Some applications require energy only during the
summer months such as many irrigation systems.
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Dr. Haytham Gamal
 25 MODULE ORIENTATION
 Fixed Tilt Arrays:
▪ Recommended values for panel inclination are
summarized in the next table.

Season Optimum angle of inclination

Summer Latitude -15º

Winter Latitude +15º

Year average Latitude

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Dr. Haytham Gamal
 26 MODULE ORIENTATION
 Fixed Tilt Arrays:

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Dr. Haytham Gamal
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 Arrays with Tracking:
▪ PV arrays which track the sun can collect a
higher amount of energy than do those installed
at a fixed tilt.
▪ The use of tracking is common for concentrator
arrays which at least for appreciable
concentration ratios collect only the direct (beam)
radiation.
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Dr. Haytham Gamal
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 Arrays with Tracking:
▪ The relationship between the annual solar radiation
captured by a tracking system and a fixed-tilt panel
inclined at the angle of latitude for several locations
across the world is illustrated in Figure.

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Dr. Haytham Gamal
 29 MODULE ORIENTATION
 Arrays with Tracking:
▪ It is concluded that, on a yearly basis, the energy
capture by a tracking flat-plate system is
increased by more than 30% over a fixed array at
latitude inclination.
▪ At the same time, a tracking concentrator system
will collect more energy than will a Hat-plate
system only in locations with predominantly clear
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skies. Dr. Haytham Gamal
 30 MODULE ORIENTATION
 Arrays with Tracking:

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Dr. Haytham Gamal