Gold

Gold is a chemical element; it has symbol Au

(from Latin aurum 'gold') and atomic number 79.
Gold, 79Au
In pure form, it is a bright, slightly orange-yellow,
dense, soft, malleable, and ductile metal.
Chemically, gold is a transition metal, a group 11
element, and one of the noble metals. It is one of
the least reactive chemical elements and is solid
under standard conditions.

Gold often occurs in free elemental (native state),

as nuggets or grains, in rocks, veins, and alluvial Gold
deposits. It occurs in a solid solution series with Appearance Metallic yellow
the native element silver (as in electrum), naturally
alloyed with other metals like copper and Standard atomic weight Ar°(Au)
palladium, and mineral inclusions such as within 196.966 570 ± 0.000 004
pyrite. Less commonly, it occurs in minerals as
gold compounds, often with tellurium (gold 196.97 ± 0.01 (abridged)[1]
tellurides). Gold in the periodic table

Gold is resistant to most acids, though it does Ag

↑
dissolve in aqua regia (a mixture of nitric acid and Au
hydrochloric acid), forming a soluble ↓
Rg
tetrachloroaurate anion. Gold is insoluble in nitric platinum ← gold → mercury
acid alone, which dissolves silver and base metals,
a property long used to refine gold and confirm the Atomic number (Z) 79
presence of gold in metallic substances, giving rise Group group 11
to the term 'acid test'. Gold dissolves in alkaline
solutions of cyanide, which are used in mining and Period period 6
electroplating. Gold also dissolves in mercury, Block d-block
forming amalgam alloys, and as the gold acts
Electron [Xe] 4f14 5d10 6s1
simply as a solute, this is not a chemical reaction.
configuration
A relatively rare element,[7][8] gold is a precious Electrons per shell 2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 1
metal that has been used for coinage, jewelry, and Physical properties
other arts throughout recorded history. In the past,
a gold standard was often implemented as a Phase at STP solid
monetary policy. Gold coins ceased to be minted Melting point 1337.33 K ​(1064.18 °C, ​
as a circulating currency in the 1930s, and the 1947.52 °F)
world gold standard was abandoned for a fiat
Boiling point 3243 K ​(2970 °C, ​5378 °F)
currency system after the Nixon shock measures
of 1971. Density (near r.t.) 19.3 g/cm3
when liquid (at m.p.) 17.31 g/cm3
In 2020, the world's largest gold producer was Heat of fusion 12.55 kJ/mol
China, followed by Russia and Australia.[9] A total
Heat of 342 kJ/mol
of around 201,296 tonnes of gold exists above
vaporization
ground, as of 2020.[10] This is equal to a cube
with each side measuring roughly 21.7 meters Molar heat capacity 25.418 J/(mol·K)
(71 ft). The world's consumption of new gold Vapor pressure
produced is about 50% in jewelry, 40% in
P (Pa) 1 10 100 1k 10 k 100 k
investments, and 10% in industry.[11] Gold's high
malleability, ductility, resistance to corrosion and at T (K) 1646 1814 2021 2281 2620 3078
most other chemical reactions, and conductivity of
electricity have led to its continued use in Atomic properties
corrosion-resistant electrical connectors in all types Oxidation states −3, −2, −1, 0,[2] +1, +2, +3,
of computerized devices (its chief industrial use).
+5 (an amphoteric oxide)
Gold is also used in infrared shielding, the
production of colored glass, gold leafing, and Electronegativity Pauling scale: 2.54
tooth restoration. Certain gold salts are still used as Ionization energies 1st: 890.1 kJ/mol
anti-inflammatories in medicine.
2nd: 1980 kJ/mol

Characteristics Atomic radius empirical: 144 pm

Covalent radius 136±6 pm
Van der Waals 166 pm
radius

Spectral lines of gold

Other properties
Natural occurrence primordial
Crystal structure ​face-centered cubic (fcc)

Gold can be drawn into a monatomic Speed of sound 2030 m/s (at r.t.)
wire, and then stretched more before thin rod
it breaks.[12]
Thermal expansion 14.2 µm/(m⋅K) (at 25 °C)
Thermal 318 W/(m⋅K)
Gold is the most malleable of all metals. It can be
conductivity
drawn into a wire of single-atom width, and then
stretched considerably before it breaks.[12] Such Electrical resistivity 22.14 nΩ⋅m (at 20 °C)
nanowires distort via the formation, reorientation, Magnetic ordering diamagnetic[3]
and migration of dislocations and crystal twins
Molar magnetic −28.0 × 10−6 cm3/mol
without noticeable hardening.[13] A single gram of
gold can be beaten into a sheet of 1 square metre susceptibility (at 296 K)[4]
(11 sq ft), and an avoirdupois ounce into 300 Tensile strength 120 MPa
square feet (28 m2 ). Gold leaf can be beaten thin Young's modulus 79 GPa
enough to become semi-transparent. The
transmitted light appears greenish-blue because Shear modulus 27 GPa
gold strongly reflects yellow and red.[14] Such Bulk modulus 180 GPa[5]
semi-transparent sheets also strongly reflect
 infrared Poisson ratio 0.4
light,
Mohs hardness 2.5
making
them Vickers hardness 188–216 MPa
useful as Brinell hardness 188–245 MPa
infrared
CAS Number 7440-57-5
(radiant
heat) History
shields in Naming from Latin aurum 'gold'
the visors
of heat- Discovery In the Middle East
resistant (before 6000 BCE)
suits and Symbol "Au": from Latin aurum
in sun
Isotopes of gold
visors for
Main isotopes[6] Decay
A gold nugget of 5 mm (0.20 in) in
size can be hammered into a gold abun­dance half-life (t1/2) mode pro­duct
foil of about 0.5 m2 (5.4 sq ft) in 195 195
Au synth 186.01 d ε Pt
area.
196
Au synth 6.165 d β+ 196
Pt

spacesuits.[15] Gold is a good conductor of heat β− 196

Hg
and electricity.
197
Au 100% stable
Gold has a density of 19.3 g/cm3 , almost identical
to that of tungsten at 19.25 g/cm3 ; as such,
198
Au synth 2.694 64 d β− 198
Hg
tungsten has been used in the counterfeiting of 199
Au synth 3.139 d β− 199
Hg
gold bars, such as by plating a tungsten bar with
gold.[16][17][18][19] By comparison, the density of
lead is 11.34 g/cm3 , and that of the densest element, osmium, is 22.588 ± 0.015 g/cm3 .[20]

Color

Whereas most metals are gray or silvery white, gold is slightly

reddish-yellow.[21] This color is determined by the frequency of
plasma oscillations among the metal's valence electrons, in the
ultraviolet range for most metals but in the visible range for gold
due to relativistic effects affecting the orbitals around gold
atoms.[22][23] Similar effects impart a golden hue to metallic
caesium.

Common colored gold alloys include the distinctive eighteen-karat

rose gold created by the addition of copper. Alloys containing
Different colors of Ag–Au–Cu alloys palladium or nickel are also important in commercial jewelry as
these produce white gold alloys. Fourteen-karat gold-copper alloy
is nearly identical in color to certain bronze alloys, and both may be
used to produce police and other badges. Fourteen- and eighteen-karat gold alloys with silver alone appear
greenish-yellow and are referred to as green gold. Blue gold can be made by alloying with iron, and purple
gold can be made by alloying with aluminium. Less commonly, addition of manganese, indium, and other
elements can produce more unusual colors of gold for various applications.[24]
Colloidal gold, used by electron-microscopists, is red if the particles are small; larger particles of colloidal
gold are blue.[25]

Isotopes

Gold has only one stable isotope, 197 Au, which is also its only naturally occurring isotope, so gold is both a
mononuclidic and monoisotopic element. Thirty-six radioisotopes have been synthesized, ranging in atomic
mass from 169 to 205. The most stable of these is 195 Au with a half-life of 186.1 days. The least stable is
171 Au, which decays by proton emission with a half-life of 30 µs. Most of gold's radioisotopes with atomic

masses below 197 decay by some combination of proton emission, α decay, and β+ decay. The exceptions
are 195 Au, which decays by electron capture, and 196 Au, which decays most often by electron capture
(93%) with a minor β− decay path (7%).[26] All of gold's radioisotopes with atomic masses above 197
decay by β− decay.[27]

At least 32 nuclear isomers have also been characterized, ranging in atomic mass from 170 to 200. Within
that range, only 178 Au, 180 Au, 181 Au, 182 Au, and 188 Au do not have isomers. Gold's most stable isomer
is 198m2 Au with a half-life of 2.27 days. Gold's least stable isomer is 177m2 Au with a half-life of only 7 ns.
184m1 Au has three decay paths: β+ decay, isomeric transition, and alpha decay. No other isomer or isotope

of gold has three decay paths.[27]

Synthesis

The possible production of gold from a more common element, such as lead, has long been a subject of
human inquiry, and the ancient and medieval discipline of alchemy often focused on it; however, the
transmutation of the chemical elements did not become possible until the understanding of nuclear physics
in the 20th century. The first synthesis of gold was conducted by Japanese physicist Hantaro Nagaoka, who
synthesized gold from mercury in 1924 by neutron bombardment.[28] An American team, working without
knowledge of Nagaoka's prior study, conducted the same experiment in 1941, achieving the same result
and showing that the isotopes of gold produced by it were all radioactive.[29] In 1980, Glenn Seaborg
transmuted several thousand atoms of bismuth into gold at the Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory.[30][31] Gold
can be manufactured in a nuclear reactor, but doing so is highly impractical and would cost far more than
the value of the gold that is produced.[32]

Chemistry
Although gold is the most noble of the noble metals,[33][34] it still
forms many diverse compounds. The oxidation state of gold in its
compounds ranges from −1 to +5, but Au(I) and Au(III) dominate
its chemistry. Au(I), referred to as the aurous ion, is the most
common oxidation state with soft ligands such as thioethers,
thiolates, and organophosphines. Au(I) compounds are typically
−
linear. A good example is Au(CN)2 , which is the soluble form of
gold encountered in mining. The binary gold halides, such as AuCl,
form zigzag polymeric chains, again featuring linear coordination at
Au. Most drugs based on gold are Au(I) derivatives.[35]
Gold(III) chloride solution in water
Au(III) (referred to as auric) is a common oxidation state, and is illustrated by gold(III) chloride, Au2 Cl6 .
The gold atom centers in Au(III) complexes, like other d8 compounds, are typically square planar, with
chemical bonds that have both covalent and ionic character. Gold(I,III) chloride is also known, an example
of a mixed-valence complex.

Gold does not react with oxygen at any temperature[36] and, up to 100 °C, is resistant to attack from
ozone:[37]

Some free halogens react with gold.[38] Gold is strongly attacked by fluorine at dull-red heat[39] to form
gold(III) fluoride AuF3 . Powdered gold reacts with chlorine at 180 °C to form gold(III) chloride AuCl3 .[40]
Gold reacts with bromine at 140 °C to form gold(III) bromide AuBr3 , but reacts only very slowly with
iodine to form gold(I) iodide AuI:

Gold does not react with sulfur directly,[41] but gold(III) sulfide can be made by passing hydrogen sulfide
through a dilute solution of gold(III) chloride or chlorauric acid.

Unlike sulfur, phosphorus reacts directly with gold at elevated temperatures to produce gold phosphide
(Au2 P3 ).[42]

Gold readily dissolves in mercury at room temperature to form an amalgam, and forms alloys with many
other metals at higher temperatures. These alloys can be produced to modify the hardness and other
metallurgical properties, to control melting point or to create exotic colors.[24]

Gold is unaffected by most acids. It does not react with hydrofluoric, hydrochloric, hydrobromic, hydriodic,
sulfuric, or nitric acid. It does react with selenic acid, and is dissolved by aqua regia, a 1:3 mixture of nitric
acid and hydrochloric acid. Nitric acid oxidizes the metal to +3 ions, but only in minute amounts, typically
undetectable in the pure acid because of the chemical equilibrium of the reaction. However, the ions are
−
removed from the equilibrium by hydrochloric acid, forming AuCl4 ions, or chloroauric acid, thereby
enabling further oxidation:
Gold is similarly unaffected by most bases. It does not react with aqueous, solid, or molten sodium or
potassium hydroxide. It does however, react with sodium or potassium cyanide under alkaline conditions
when oxygen is present to form soluble complexes.[41]

Common oxidation states of gold include +1 (gold(I) or aurous compounds) and +3 (gold(III) or auric
compounds). Gold ions in solution are readily reduced and precipitated as metal by adding any other metal
as the reducing agent. The added metal is oxidized and dissolves, allowing the gold to be displaced from
solution and be recovered as a solid precipitate.

Rare oxidation states

Less common oxidation states of gold include −1, +2, and +5.

The −1 oxidation state occurs in aurides, compounds containing the Au− anion. Caesium auride (CsAu), for
example, crystallizes in the caesium chloride motif;[43] rubidium, potassium, and tetramethylammonium
aurides are also known.[44] Gold has the highest electron affinity of any metal, at 222.8 kJ/mol, making
−
Au a stable species,[45] analogous to the halides.

Gold also has a –1 oxidation state in covalent complexes with the group 4 transition metals, such as in
titanium tetraauride and the analogous zirconium and hafnium compounds. These chemicals are expected to
form gold-bridged dimers in a manner similar to titanium(IV) hydride.[46]

Gold(II) compounds are usually diamagnetic with Au–Au bonds such as [Au(CH2 )2 P(C6 H5 )2 ]2 Cl2 . The
evaporation of a solution of Au(OH)3 in concentrated H2 SO4 produces red crystals of gold(II) sulfate,
Au2 (SO4 )2 . Originally thought to be a mixed-valence compound, it has been shown to contain Au4+ 2
2+ [47][48]
cations, analogous to the better-known mercury(I) ion, Hg2 . A gold(II) complex, the
tetraxenonogold(II) cation, which contains xenon as a ligand, occurs in [AuXe4 ](Sb2 F11 )2 .[49] In
September 2023, a novel type of metal-halide perovskite material consisting of Au3+ and Au2+ cations in its
crystal structure has been found.[50] It has been shown to unexpectedly stable at normal conditions.
−
Gold pentafluoride, along with its derivative anion, AuF6 , and its difluorine complex, gold heptafluoride, is
the sole example of gold(V), the highest verified oxidation state.[51]

Some gold compounds exhibit aurophilic bonding, which describes the tendency of gold ions to interact at
distances that are too long to be a conventional Au–Au bond but shorter than van der Waals bonding. The
interaction is estimated to be comparable in strength to that of a hydrogen bond.

Well-defined cluster compounds are numerous.[44] In some cases, gold has a fractional oxidation state. A
2+
representative example is the octahedral species {Au(P(C6 H5 )3 )}6 .

Origin

Gold production in the universe

Gold is thought to have been produced in supernova nucleosynthesis, and from the collision of neutron
stars,[52] and to have been present in the dust from which the Solar System formed.[53]
Traditionally, gold in the universe is
thought to have formed by the r-
process (rapid neutron capture) in
supernova nucleosynthesis,[54] but
more recently it has been suggested
that gold and other elements heavier
than iron may also be produced in
quantity by the r-process in the Schematic of a NE (left) to SW (right) cross-section through the
collision of neutron stars. [55] In both 2.020-billion-year-old Vredefort impact structure in South Africa and
cases, satellite spectrometers at first how it distorted the contemporary geological structures. The present
only indirectly detected the resulting erosion level is shown. Johannesburg is located where the
gold. [56] However, in August 2017, Witwatersrand Basin (the yellow layer) is exposed at the "present
the spectroscopic signatures of heavy surface" line, just inside the crater rim, on the left. Not to scale.
elements, including gold, were
observed by electromagnetic
observatories in the GW170817 neutron star merger event, after gravitational wave detectors confirmed the
event as a neutron star merger.[57] Current astrophysical models suggest that this single neutron star merger
event generated between 3 and 13 Earth masses of gold. This amount, along with estimations of the rate of
occurrence of these neutron star merger events, suggests that such mergers may produce enough gold to
account for most of the abundance of this element in the universe.[58]

Asteroid origin theories

Because the Earth was molten when it was formed, almost all of the gold present in the early Earth
probably sank into the planetary core. Therefore, most of the gold that is in the Earth's crust and mantle has
in one model thought to have been delivered to Earth later, by asteroid impacts during the Late Heavy
Bombardment, about 4 billion years ago.[59][60]

Gold which is reachable by humans has, in one case, been associated with a particular asteroid impact. The
asteroid that formed Vredefort impact structure 2.020 billion years ago is often credited with seeding the
Witwatersrand basin in South Africa with the richest gold deposits on earth.[61][62][63][64] However, this
scenario is now questioned. The gold-bearing Witwatersrand rocks were laid down between 700 and
950 million years before the Vredefort impact.[65][66] These gold-bearing rocks had furthermore been
covered by a thick layer of Ventersdorp lavas and the Transvaal Supergroup of rocks before the meteor
struck, and thus the gold did not actually arrive in the asteroid/meteorite. What the Vredefort impact
achieved, however, was to distort the Witwatersrand basin in such a way that the gold-bearing rocks were
brought to the present erosion surface in Johannesburg, on the Witwatersrand, just inside the rim of the
original 300 km (190 mi) diameter crater caused by the meteor strike. The discovery of the deposit in 1886
launched the Witwatersrand Gold Rush. Some 22% of all the gold that is ascertained to exist today on Earth
has been extracted from these Witwatersrand rocks.[66]

Mantle return theories

Notwithstanding the impact above, much of the rest of the gold on Earth is thought to have been
incorporated into the planet since its very beginning, as planetesimals formed the planet's mantle, early in
Earth's creation. In 2017, an international group of scientists, established that gold "came to the Earth's
surface from the deepest regions of our planet",[67] the mantle, evidenced by their findings at Deseado
Massif in the Argentinian Patagonia.[68]

Occurrence
On Earth, gold is found in ores in rock formed from the Precambrian time onward.[69] It most often occurs
as a native metal, typically in a metal solid solution with silver (i.e. as a gold/silver alloy). Such alloys
usually have a silver content of 8–10%. Electrum is elemental gold with more than 20% silver, and is
commonly known as white gold. Electrum's color runs from golden-silvery to silvery, dependent upon the
silver content. The more silver, the lower the specific gravity.

Native gold occurs as very small to microscopic particles embedded in rock, often together with quartz or
sulfide minerals such as "fool's gold", which is a pyrite.[70] These are called lode deposits. The metal in a
native state is also found in the form of free flakes, grains or larger nuggets[69] that have been eroded from
rocks and end up in alluvial deposits called placer deposits. Such free gold is always richer at the exposed
surface of gold-bearing veins, owing to the oxidation of accompanying minerals followed by weathering;
and by washing of the dust into streams and rivers, where it collects and can be welded by water action to
form nuggets.

Gold sometimes occurs combined with tellurium as the minerals calaverite, krennerite, nagyagite, petzite
and sylvanite (see telluride minerals), and as the rare bismuthide maldonite (Au2 Bi) and antimonide
aurostibite (AuSb2 ). Gold also occurs in rare alloys with copper, lead, and mercury: the minerals
auricupride (Cu3 Au), novodneprite (AuPb3 ) and weishanite ((Au,Ag)3 Hg2 ).

Recent research suggests that microbes can sometimes play an important role in forming gold deposits,
transporting and precipitating gold to form grains and nuggets that collect in alluvial deposits.[71]

Another recent study has claimed water in faults vaporizes during an earthquake, depositing gold. When an
earthquake strikes, it moves along a fault. Water often lubricates faults, filling in fractures and jogs. About
10 kilometres (6.2 mi) below the surface, under very high temperatures and pressures, the water carries
high concentrations of carbon dioxide, silica, and gold. During an earthquake, the fault jog suddenly opens
wider. The water inside the void instantly vaporizes, flashing to steam and forcing silica, which forms the
mineral quartz, and gold out of the fluids and onto nearby surfaces.[72]

Seawater

The world's oceans contain gold. Measured concentrations of gold in the Atlantic and Northeast Pacific are
50–150 femtomol/L or 10–30 parts per quadrillion (about 10–30 g/km3 ). In general, gold concentrations for
south Atlantic and central Pacific samples are the same (~50 femtomol/L) but less certain. Mediterranean
deep waters contain slightly higher concentrations of gold (100–150 femtomol/L) attributed to wind-blown
dust or rivers. At 10 parts per quadrillion the Earth's oceans would hold 15,000 tonnes of gold.[73] These
figures are three orders of magnitude less than reported in the literature prior to 1988, indicating
contamination problems with the earlier data.

A number of people have claimed to be able to economically recover gold from sea water, but they were
either mistaken or acted in an intentional deception. Prescott Jernegan ran a gold-from-seawater swindle in
the United States in the 1890s, as did an English fraudster in the early 1900s.[74] Fritz Haber did research
on the extraction of gold from sea water in an effort to help pay Germany's reparations following World
War I.[75] Based on the published values of 2 to 64 ppb of gold in seawater a commercially successful
extraction seemed possible. After analysis of 4,000 water samples yielding an average of 0.004 ppb it
became clear that extraction would not be possible and he ended the project.[76]

History
The earliest recorded metal employed by humans appears to be
gold, which can be found free or "native". Small amounts of
natural gold have been found in Spanish caves used during the late
Paleolithic period, c. 40,000 BC.[78]

The oldest gold artifacts in the world are from Bulgaria and are
dating back to the 5th millennium BC (4,600 BC to 4,200 BC),
such as those found in the Varna Necropolis near Lake Varna and
the Black Sea coast, thought to be the earliest "well-dated" finding
of gold artifacts in history.[79][69][80] Several prehistoric Bulgarian Oldest golden artifacts in the world
finds are considered no less old – the golden treasures of Hotnitsa, (4600–4200 BC) from Varna
Durankulak, artifacts from the Kurgan settlement of Yunatsite near necropolis, Bulgaria — grave
Pazardzhik, the golden treasure Sakar, as well as beads and gold offerings on exposition in Varna
jewelry found in the Kurgan settlement of Provadia – Solnitsata Museum.
("salt pit"). However, Varna gold is most often called the oldest
since this treasure is the largest and most diverse.[81]

Gold artifacts probably made their first appearance in Ancient Egypt at the
very beginning of the pre-dynastic period, at the end of the fifth millennium
BC and the start of the fourth, and smelting was developed during the
course of the 4th millennium; gold artifacts appear in the archeology of
Lower Mesopotamia during the early 4th millennium.[82] As of 1990, gold
artifacts found at the Wadi Qana cave cemetery of the 4th millennium BC
in West Bank were the earliest from the Levant.[83] Gold artifacts such as
the golden hats and the Nebra disk appeared in Central Europe from the
2nd millennium BC Bronze Age.

The oldest known map of a gold mine was drawn in the 19th Dynasty of
Ancient Egypt (1320–1200 BC), whereas the first written reference to gold An Indian tribute-bearer at
was recorded in the 12th Dynasty around 1900 BC.[84] Egyptian Apadana, from the
hieroglyphs from as early as 2600 BC describe gold, which King Tushratta Achaemenid satrapy of
of the Mitanni claimed was "more plentiful than dirt" in Egypt. [85] Egypt Hindush, carrying gold on a
and especially Nubia had the resources to make them major gold-producing yoke, circa 500 BC.[77]
areas for much of history. One of the earliest known maps, known as the
Turin Papyrus Map, shows the plan of a gold mine in Nubia together with
indications of the local geology. The primitive working methods are described by both Strabo and Diodorus
Siculus, and included fire-setting. Large mines were also present across the Red Sea in what is now Saudi
Arabia.

Gold is mentioned in the Amarna letters numbered 19[86] and 26[87] from around the 14th century
BC.[88][89]
 Gold is mentioned
frequently in the Old
Testament, starting with
Genesis 2:11 (at Havilah),
the story of the golden calf,
and many parts of the
temple including the
Menorah and the golden
altar. In the New
Testament, it is included
with the gifts of the magi in
the first chapters of
Matthew. The Book of The Muisca raft, between circa 600-
Ancient golden Kritonios Crown, Revelation 21:21 describes 1600 AD. The figure refers to the
funerary or marriage material, 370– the city of New Jerusalem ceremony of the legend of El Dorado.
360 BC; from a grave in Armento, as having streets "made of The zipa used to cover his body in
Basilicata pure gold, clear as crystal". gold dust, and from his raft, he
Exploitation of gold in the offered treasures to the Guatavita
south-east corner of the goddess in the middle of the sacred
Black Sea is said to date from the time of Midas, and this gold was lake. This old Muisca tradition
important in the establishment of what is probably the world's became the origin of the legend of El
earliest coinage in Lydia around 610 BC.[90] The legend of the Dorado.
golden fleece dating from eighth century BCE may refer to the use This Muisca raft figure is on display in the
of fleeces to trap gold dust from placer deposits in the ancient Gold Museum, Bogotá, Colombia.

world. From the 6th or 5th century BC, the Chu (state) circulated
the Ying Yuan, one kind of square gold coin.

In Roman metallurgy, new methods for extracting gold on a large scale were developed by introducing
hydraulic mining methods, especially in Hispania from 25 BC onwards and in Dacia from 106 AD
onwards. One of their largest mines was at Las Medulas in León, where seven long aqueducts enabled
them to sluice most of a large alluvial deposit. The mines at Roşia Montană in Transylvania were also very
large, and until very recently, still mined by opencast methods. They also exploited smaller deposits in
Britain, such as placer and hard-rock deposits at Dolaucothi. The various methods they used are well
described by Pliny the Elder in his encyclopedia Naturalis Historia written towards the end of the first
century AD.

During Mansa Musa's (ruler of the Mali Empire from 1312 to 1337) hajj to Mecca in 1324, he passed
through Cairo in July 1324, and was reportedly accompanied by a camel train that included thousands of
people and nearly a hundred camels where he gave away so much gold that it depressed the price in Egypt
for over a decade, causing high inflation.[91] A contemporary Arab historian remarked:

Gold was at a high price in Egypt until they came in that year. The mithqal did not go below
25 dirhams and was generally above, but from that time its value fell and it cheapened in price
and has remained cheap till now. The mithqal does not exceed 22 dirhams or less. This has
been the state of affairs for about twelve years until this day by reason of the large amount of
gold which they brought into Egypt and spent there [...].

— Chihab Al-Umari, Kingdom of Mali[92]

The European exploration of the Americas was fueled in no small
part by reports of the gold ornaments displayed in great profusion
by Native American peoples, especially in Mesoamerica, Peru,
Ecuador and Colombia. The Aztecs regarded gold as the product of
the gods, calling it literally "god excrement" (teocuitlatl in
Nahuatl), and after Moctezuma II was killed, most of this gold was
shipped to Spain.[94] However, for the indigenous peoples of North Gold coin of Eucratides I (171–
America gold was considered useless and they saw much greater 145 BC), one of the Hellenistic rulers
value in other minerals which were directly related to their utility, of ancient Ai-Khanoum. This is the
such as obsidian, flint, and slate.[95] El Dorado is applied to a largest known gold coin minted in
legendary story in which precious stones were found in fabulous antiquity (169.2 g (5.97 oz); 58 mm
abundance along with gold coins. The concept of El Dorado (2.3 in)).[93]
underwent several transformations, and eventually accounts of the
previous myth were also combined with those of a legendary lost
city. El Dorado, was the term used by the Spanish Empire to describe a mythical tribal chief (zipa) of the
Muisca native people in Colombia, who, as an initiation rite, covered himself with gold dust and submerged
in Lake Guatavita. The legends surrounding El Dorado changed over time, as it went from being a man, to
a city, to a kingdom, and then finally to an empire.

Beginning in the early modern period, European exploration and colonization of West Africa was driven in
large part by reports of gold deposits in the region, which was eventually referred to by Europeans as the
"Gold Coast".[96] From the late 15th to early 19th centuries, European trade in the region was primarily
focused in gold, along with ivory and slaves.[97] The gold trade in West Africa was dominated by the
Ashanti Empire, who initially traded with the Portuguese before branching out and trading with British,
French, Spanish and Danish merchants.[98] British desires to secure control of West African gold deposits
played a role in the Anglo-Ashanti wars of the late 19th century, which saw the Ashanti Empire annexed by
Britain.[99]

Gold played a role in western culture, as a cause for desire and of corruption, as told in children's fables
such as Rumpelstiltskin—where Rumpelstiltskin turns hay into gold for the peasant's daughter in return for
her child when she becomes a princess—and the stealing of the hen that lays golden eggs in Jack and the
Beanstalk.

The top prize at the Olympic Games and many other sports competitions is the gold medal.

75% of the presently accounted for gold has been extracted since 1910, two-thirds since 1950.

One main goal of the alchemists was to produce gold from other substances, such as lead — presumably by
the interaction with a mythical substance called the philosopher's stone. Trying to produce gold led the
alchemists to systematically find out what can be done with substances, and this laid the foundation for
today's chemistry, which can produce gold (albeit uneconomically) by using nuclear transmutation.[100]
Their symbol for gold was the circle with a point at its center (☉), which was also the astrological symbol
and the ancient Chinese character for the Sun.

The Dome of the Rock is covered with an ultra-thin golden glassier. The Sikh Golden temple, the
Harmandir Sahib, is a building covered with gold. Similarly the Wat Phra Kaew emerald Buddhist temple
(wat) in Thailand has ornamental gold-leafed statues and roofs. Some European king and queen's crowns
were made of gold, and gold was used for the bridal crown since antiquity. An ancient Talmudic text circa
100 AD describes Rachel, wife of Rabbi Akiva, receiving a "Jerusalem of Gold" (diadem). A Greek burial
crown made of gold was found in a grave circa 370 BC.
 Minoan jewellery, Sumerian earrings with cuneiform Minoan cup, part of the
2300–2100 BC, inscriptions, 2093–2046 BC, gold, Aegina Treasure, 1850-
gold, Metropolitan Sulaymaniyah Museum, 1550 BC, gold, British
Museum of Art, New Sulaymaniyah, Iraq Museum[101]
York

Ancient Egyptian Ancient Egyptian signet ring, Ancient Ancient Greek stater,
statuette of Amun, 664–525 BC, gold, British Chinese cast 323–315 BC, gold,
945–715 BC, Museum openwork Metropolitan Museum
gold, Metropolitan dagger hilt, of Art
Museum of Art 6th-5th
centuries BC,
gold, British
Museum [102]

Etruscan funerary wreath, 4th– Roman aureus of Quimbaya lime

3rd century BC, gold, Hadrian, 134–138 container, 5th–9th
Metropolitan Museum of Art AD, gold, century, gold,
Metropolitan Metropolitan
Museum of Art Museum of Art
Anglo-Saxon belt buckle from Byzantine scyphate, Pre-Columbian pendant with
Sutton Hoo with a niello interlace 1059–1067, gold, two bat-head warriors who
pattern, 7th century, gold, British Cleveland Museum of carry spears, 11th–16th
Museum[103] Art, Cleveland, Ohio, century, gold, Metropolitan
USA Museum of Art

Inca hollow model of Renaissance hat badge Rococo box, by George Michael
a llama, 14th-15th that shows the Judgment Moser, 1741, gold, Metropolitan
centuries, gold, of Paris, 16th century, Museum of Art
British Museum[104] enamelled gold, British
Museum[105]
 Rococo Rococo snuff box with Louis XVI style snuff box, by
candelabrum, by Minerva, by Jean-Malquis Jean Frémin, 1763-1764, gold
Jean Joseph de Lequin, 1750-1752, gold and and painted enamel,
Saint-Germain, painted enamel, Louvre[106] Louvre [107]
c.1750, gilt
bronze,
Cleveland
Museum of Art

Neoclassical Gothic Art Nouveau teapot, by

washstand Revival Alphonse Debain, gilt
(athénienne or clock, silver and ivory,
lavabo), 1800– unknown Museum of Decorative
1814, legs, base French Arts
and shelf of yew maker,
wood, gilt bronze c.1835-
mounts, iron plate 1840, gilt
beneath shelf, and
Metropolitan patinated
Museum of Art bronze,
Museum of
Decorative
Arts, Paris

Etymology

'Gold' is cognate with similar words in many Germanic languages, deriving via Proto-Germanic *gulþą
from Proto-Indo-European *ǵʰelh₃- ("to shine, to gleam; to be yellow or green").[108][109]
The symbol Au is from the Latin: aurum, the Latin word for "gold".[110] The
Proto-Indo-European ancestor of aurum was *h₂é-h₂us-o-, meaning "glow". This
word is derived from the same root (Proto-Indo-European *h₂u̯ es- "to dawn") as
*h₂éu̯ sōs, the ancestor of the Latin word Aurora, "dawn".[111] This etymological
relationship is presumably behind the frequent claim in scientific publications that
aurum meant "shining dawn".[112] An early mention of
gold in the Beowulf

Culture

In popular culture gold is a high standard of excellence, often used

in awards.[45] Great achievements are frequently rewarded with
gold, in the form of gold medals, gold trophies and other
decorations. Winners of athletic events and other graded
competitions are usually awarded a gold medal. Many awards such
as the Nobel Prize are made from gold as well. Other award statues
and prizes are depicted in gold or are gold plated (such as the
Academy Awards, the Golden Globe Awards, the Emmy Awards,
the Palme d'Or, and the British Academy Film Awards).[113]

Aristotle in his ethics used gold symbolism when referring to what

is now known as the golden mean. Similarly, gold is associated
Gold crafts from the Philippines prior
with perfect or divine principles, such as in the case of the golden
to Western contact
ratio and the golden rule. Gold is further associated with the
wisdom of aging and fruition. The fiftieth wedding anniversary is
golden. A person's most valued or most successful latter years are sometimes considered "golden years".
The height of a civilization is referred to as a golden age.[114]

Religion

The first known prehistoric human usages of gold were religious in

nature.[115]

In some forms of Christianity and Judaism, gold has been

associated both with the sacred and evil. In the Book of Exodus,
the Golden Calf is a symbol of idolatry, while in the Book of
Genesis, Abraham was said to be rich in gold and silver, and Moses
was instructed to cover the Mercy Seat of the Ark of the Covenant
with pure gold. In Byzantine iconography the halos of Christ,
Virgin Mary and the saints are often golden.[116]

In Islam,[117] gold (along with silk)[118][119] is often cited as being

forbidden for men to wear.[120] Abu Bakr al-Jazaeri, quoting a
hadith, said that "[t]he wearing of silk and gold are forbidden on
the males of my nation, and they are lawful to their women".[121]
This, however, has not been enforced consistently throughout
history, e.g. in the Ottoman Empire.[122] Further, small gold accents
on clothing, such as in embroidery, may be permitted.[123]
The Agusan image, depicting a deity
from northeast Mindanao
In ancient Greek religion and mythology, Theia was seen as the goddess of gold, silver and other
gems.[124]

According to Christopher Columbus, those who had something of gold were in possession of something of
great value on Earth and a substance to even help souls to paradise.[125]

Wedding rings are typically made of gold. It is long lasting and unaffected by the passage of time and may
aid in the ring symbolism of eternal vows before God and the perfection the marriage signifies. In Orthodox
Christian wedding ceremonies, the wedded couple is adorned with a golden crown (though some opt for
wreaths, instead) during the ceremony, an amalgamation of symbolic rites.

On 24 August 2020, Israeli archaeologists discovered a trove of early Islamic gold coins near the central
city of Yavne. Analysis of the extremely rare collection of 425 gold coins indicated that they were from the
late 9th century. Dating to around 1,100 years back, the gold coins were from the Abbasid Caliphate.[126]

Production
According to the United States Geological Survey in 2016, about
5,726,000,000 troy ounces (178,100 t) of gold has been accounted
for, of which 85% remains in active use.[127]

Mining and prospecting

Since the 1880s, South

Africa has been the source Time trend of gold production
of a large proportion of the
world's gold supply, and
about 22% of the gold
presently accounted is from
South Africa. Production in
1970 accounted for 79% of
A miner underground at Pumsaint the world supply, about
gold mine, Wales; c. 1938. 1,480 tonnes. In 2007
China (with 276 tonnes)
overtook South Africa as
the world's largest gold producer, the first time since 1905 that
Grasberg mine, Indonesia is the
South Africa had not been the largest.[128] world's largest gold mine.

In 2020, China was the world's leading gold-mining country,

followed in order by Russia, Australia, the United States, Canada,
and Ghana.[9]

In South America, the controversial project Pascua Lama aims at exploitation of rich fields in the high
mountains of Atacama Desert, at the border between Chile and Argentina.

It has been estimated that up to one-quarter of the yearly global gold production originates from artisanal or
small scale mining.[129][130][131]

The city of Johannesburg located in South Africa was founded as a result of the Witwatersrand Gold Rush
which resulted in the discovery of some of the largest natural gold deposits in recorded history. The gold
fields are confined to the northern and north-western edges of the Witwatersrand basin, which is a 5–7 km
 (3.1–4.3 mi) thick layer of archean rocks located, in most places,
deep under the Free State, Gauteng and surrounding
provinces.[132] These Witwatersrand rocks are exposed at the
surface on the Witwatersrand, in and around Johannesburg, but also
in isolated patches to the south-east and south-west of
Johannesburg, as well as in an arc around the Vredefort Dome
which lies close to the center of the Witwatersrand basin.[65][132]
From these surface exposures the basin dips extensively, requiring
some of the mining to occur at depths of nearly 4,000 m
(13,000 ft), making them, especially the Savuka and TauTona
mines to the south-west of Johannesburg, the deepest mines on
Relative sizes of an 860 kg (1,900 lb) earth. The gold is found only in six areas where archean rivers from
block of gold ore and the 30 g the north and north-west formed extensive pebbly Braided river
(0.96 ozt) of gold that can be deltas before draining into the "Witwatersrand sea" where the rest
extracted from it, Toi gold mine, of the Witwatersrand sediments were deposited.[132]
Japan.
The Second Boer War of 1899–1901 between the British Empire
and the Afrikaner Boers was at least partly over the rights of miners
and possession of the gold wealth in South Africa.

During the 19th century, gold rushes occurred whenever large gold
deposits were discovered. The first documented discovery of gold
in the United States was at the Reed Gold Mine near Georgeville,
North Carolina in 1803.[133] The first major gold strike in the
United States occurred in a small north Georgia town called
Dahlonega.[134] Further gold rushes occurred in California,
Colorado, the Black Hills, Otago in New Zealand, a number of
locations across Australia, Witwatersrand in South Africa, and the
Klondike in Canada.
Gold prospecting at the Ivalo River in
Grasberg mine located in Papua, Indonesia is the largest gold mine the Finnish Lapland in 1898
in the world.[135]

Extraction and refining

Gold extraction is most economical in large, easily mined deposits.

Ore grades as little as 0.5 parts per million (ppm) can be
economical. Typical ore grades in open-pit mines are 1–5 ppm; ore
grades in underground or hard rock mines are usually at least
3 ppm. Because ore grades of 30 ppm are usually needed before
gold is visible to the naked eye, in most gold mines the gold is
invisible.

The average gold mining and extraction costs were about $317 per
troy ounce in 2007, but these can vary widely depending on mining
type and ore quality; global mine production amounted to 2,471.1
Gold Nuggets found in Arizona. tonnes.[136]

After initial production, gold is often subsequently refined

industrially by the Wohlwill process which is based on electrolysis or by the Miller process, that is
chlorination in the melt. The Wohlwill process results in higher purity, but is more complex and is only
applied in small-scale installations.[137][138] Other methods of assaying and purifying smaller amounts of
gold include parting and inquartation as well as cupellation, or refining methods based on the dissolution of
gold in aqua regia.[139]

Recycling

In 1997, recycled gold accounted for approximately 20% of the 2700 tons of gold supplied to the
market.[140] Jewelry companies such as Generation Collection and computer companies including Dell
conduct recycling[141]

As of 2020, the amount of carbon dioxide CO2 produced in mining a kilogram of gold is 16 tonnes, while
recycling a kilogram of gold produces 53 kilograms of CO2 equivalent. Approximately 30 percent of the
global gold supply is recycled and not mined as of 2020.[142]

Consumption

The consumption of gold Gold jewelry consumption by country (in tonnes)[143][144][145]

produced in the world is
Country 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013
about 50% in jewelry, 40% in
investments, and 10% in India 442.37 745.70 986.3 864 974
industry.[11][146] China 376.96 428.00 921.5 817.5 1120.1

According to the World Gold United States 150.28 128.61 199.5 161 190
Council, China was the Turkey 75.16 74.07 143 118 175.2
world's largest single
Saudi Arabia 77.75 72.95 69.1 58.5 72.2
consumer of gold in 2013,
overtaking India.[147] Russia 60.12 67.50 76.7 81.9 73.3

United Arab Emirates 67.60 63.37 60.9 58.1 77.1

Pollution Egypt 56.68 53.43 36 47.8 57.3

Indonesia 41.00 32.75 55 52.3 68

Gold production is associated
with contribution to United Kingdom 31.75 27.35 22.6 21.1 23.4
hazardous pollution.[148][149]
Other Persian Gulf Countries 24.10 21.97 22 19.9 24.6

Low-grade gold ore may Japan 21.85 18.50 −30.1 7.6 21.3
contain less than one ppm South Korea 18.83 15.87 15.5 12.1 17.5
gold metal; such ore is ground
and mixed with sodium Vietnam 15.08 14.36 100.8 77 92.2
cyanide to dissolve the gold. Thailand 7.33 6.28 107.4 80.9 140.1
Cyanide is a highly poisonous
Total 1466.86 1770.71 2786.12 2477.7 3126.1
chemical, which can kill
living creatures when exposed Other Countries 251.6 254.0 390.4 393.5 450.7
in minute quantities. Many
World Total 1718.46 2024.71 3176.52 2871.2 3576.8
cyanide spills[150] from gold
mines have occurred in both
developed and developing countries which killed aquatic life in long stretches of affected rivers.
Environmentalists consider these events major environmental disasters.[151][152] Up to thirty tons of used
ore can be dumped as waste for producing one troy ounce of gold.[153] Gold ore dumps are the source of
many heavy elements such as cadmium, lead, zinc, copper, arsenic, selenium and mercury. When sulfide-
bearing minerals in these ore dumps are exposed to air and water, the sulfide transforms into sulfuric acid
which in turn dissolves these heavy metals facilitating their passage into surface water and ground water.
This process is called acid mine drainage. These gold ore dumps contain long-term, highly hazardous
waste.[153]

It was once common to use mercury to recover gold from ore, but today the use of mercury is largely
limited to small-scale individual miners.[154] Minute quantities of mercury compounds can reach water
bodies, causing heavy metal contamination. Mercury can then enter into the human food chain in the form
of methylmercury. Mercury poisoning in humans causes incurable brain function damage and severe
retardation.[155]

Gold extraction is also a highly energy-intensive industry, extracting ore from deep mines and grinding the
large quantity of ore for further chemical extraction requires nearly 25 kWh of electricity per gram of gold
produced.[156]

Monetary use
Gold has been widely used throughout the world as money,[157] for
efficient indirect exchange (versus barter), and to store wealth in
hoards. For exchange purposes, mints produce standardized gold
bullion coins, bars and other units of fixed weight and purity.

The first known coins containing gold were struck in Lydia, Asia
Minor, around 600 BC.[90] The talent coin of gold in use during Two golden 20 kr coins from the
the periods of Grecian history both before and during the time of Scandinavian Monetary Union, which
the life of Homer weighed between 8.42 and 8.75 grams.[158] was based on a gold standard. The
From an earlier preference in using silver, European economies re- coin to the left is Swedish and the
established the minting of gold as coinage during the thirteenth and right one is Danish.
fourteenth centuries.[159]

Bills (that mature into gold coin) and gold certificates (convertible into gold coin at the issuing bank) added
to the circulating stock of gold standard money in most 19th century industrial economies. In preparation
for World War I the warring nations moved to fractional gold standards, inflating their currencies to finance
the war effort. Post-war, the victorious countries, most notably Britain, gradually restored gold-
convertibility, but international flows of gold via bills of exchange remained embargoed; international
shipments were made exclusively for bilateral trades or to pay war reparations.

After World War II gold was replaced by a system of nominally convertible currencies related by fixed
exchange rates following the Bretton Woods system. Gold standards and the direct convertibility of
currencies to gold have been abandoned by world governments, led in 1971 by the United States' refusal to
redeem its dollars in gold. Fiat currency now fills most monetary roles. Switzerland was the last country to
tie its currency to gold; this was ended by a referendum in 1999.[160]

Central banks continue to keep a portion of their liquid reserves as gold in some form, and metals
exchanges such as the London Bullion Market Association still clear transactions denominated in gold,
including future delivery contracts. Today, gold mining output is declining.[161] With the sharp growth of
economies in the 20th century, and increasing foreign exchange, the world's gold reserves and their trading
market have become a small fraction of all markets and fixed exchange rates of currencies to gold have
been replaced by floating prices for gold and gold future contract. Though the gold stock grows by only
1% or 2% per year, very little metal is irretrievably consumed. Inventory above ground would satisfy many
decades of industrial and even artisan uses at current prices.
The gold proportion (fineness) of alloys is measured by karat (k). Pure gold (commercially termed fine
gold) is designated as 24 karat, abbreviated 24k. English gold coins intended for circulation from 1526 into
the 1930s were typically a standard 22k alloy called crown gold,[162] for hardness (American gold coins
for circulation after 1837 contain an alloy of 0.900 fine gold, or 21.6 kt).[163]

Although the prices of some platinum group metals can be much higher, gold has long been considered the
most desirable of precious metals, and its value has been used as the standard for many currencies. Gold
has been used as a symbol for purity, value, royalty, and particularly roles that combine these properties.
Gold as a sign of wealth and prestige was ridiculed by Thomas More in his treatise Utopia. On that
imaginary island, gold is so abundant that it is used to make chains for slaves, tableware, and lavatory seats.
When ambassadors from other countries arrive, dressed in ostentatious gold jewels and badges, the
Utopians mistake them for menial servants, paying homage instead to the most modestly dressed of their
party.

The ISO 4217 currency code of gold is XAU.[164] Many holders of gold store it in form of bullion coins or
bars as a hedge against inflation or other economic disruptions, though its efficacy as such has been
questioned; historically, it has not proven itself reliable as a hedging instrument.[165] Modern bullion coins
for investment or collector purposes do not require good mechanical wear properties; they are typically fine
gold at 24k, although the American Gold Eagle and the British gold sovereign continue to be minted in 22k
(0.92) metal in historical tradition, and the South African Krugerrand, first released in 1967, is also 22k
(0.92).[166]

The special issue Canadian Gold Maple Leaf coin contains the highest purity gold of any bullion coin, at
99.999% or 0.99999, while the popular issue Canadian Gold Maple Leaf coin has a purity of 99.99%. In
2006, the United States Mint began producing the American Buffalo gold bullion coin with a purity of
99.99%. The Australian Gold Kangaroos were first coined in 1986 as the Australian Gold Nugget but
changed the reverse design in 1989. Other modern coins include the Austrian Vienna Philharmonic bullion
coin and the Chinese Gold Panda.[167]

Price

Like other precious metals, gold is measured by troy

weight and by grams. The proportion of gold in the
alloy is measured by karat (k), with 24 karat (24k)
being pure gold (100%), and lower karat numbers
proportionally less (18k = 75%). The purity of a gold
bar or coin can also be expressed as a decimal figure
ranging from 0 to 1, known as the millesimal fineness,
such as 0.995 being nearly pure.

The price of gold is determined through trading in the

gold and derivatives markets, but a procedure known Gold price history in 1960–2020.
as the Gold Fixing in London, originating in
September 1919, provides a daily benchmark price to
the industry. The afternoon fixing was introduced in 1968 to provide a price when US markets are
open.[168] As of September 2017, gold was valued at around $42 per gram ($1,300 per troy ounce).

History
Historically gold coinage was widely used as currency; when paper money was introduced, it typically was
a receipt redeemable for gold coin or bullion. In a monetary system known as the gold standard, a certain
weight of gold was given the name of a unit of currency. For a long period, the United States government
set the value of the US dollar so that one troy ounce was equal to $20.67 ($0.665 per gram), but in 1934
the dollar was devalued to $35.00 per troy ounce ($0.889/g). By 1961, it was becoming hard to maintain
this price, and a pool of US and European banks agreed to manipulate the market to prevent further
currency devaluation against increased gold demand.[169]

The largest gold depository in the world is that of the U.S. Federal Reserve Bank in New York, which
holds about 3%[170] of the gold known to exist and accounted for today, as does the similarly laden U.S.
Bullion Depository at Fort Knox. In 2005 the World Gold Council estimated total global gold supply to be
3,859 tonnes and demand to be 3,754 tonnes, giving a surplus of 105 tonnes.[171]

After 15 August 1971 Nixon shock, the price began to greatly increase,[172] and between 1968 and 2000
the price of gold ranged widely, from a high of $850 per troy ounce ($27.33/g) on 21 January 1980, to a
low of $252.90 per troy ounce ($8.13/g) on 21 June 1999 (London Gold Fixing).[173] Prices increased
rapidly from 2001, but the 1980 high was not exceeded until 3 January 2008, when a new maximum of
$865.35 per troy ounce was set.[174] Another record price was set on 17 March 2008, at $1023.50 per troy
ounce ($32.91/g).[174]

On 2 December 2009, gold reached a new high closing at $1,217.23.[175] Gold further rallied hitting new
highs in May 2010 after the European Union debt crisis prompted further purchase of gold as a safe
asset.[176][177] On 1 March 2011, gold hit a new all-time high of $1432.57, based on investor concerns
regarding ongoing unrest in North Africa as well as in the Middle East.[178]

From April 2001 to August 2011, spot gold prices more than quintupled in value against the US dollar,
hitting a new all-time high of $1,913.50 on 23 August 2011,[179] prompting speculation that the long
secular bear market had ended and a bull market had returned.[180] However, the price then began a slow
decline towards $1200 per troy ounce in late 2014 and 2015.

In August 2020, the gold price picked up to US$2060 per ounce after a total growth of 59% from August
2018 to October 2020, a period during which it outplaced the Nasdaq total return of 54%.[181]

Gold futures are traded on the COMEX exchange.[182] These contacts are priced in USD per troy ounce (1
troy ounce = 31.1034768 grams).[183] Below are the CQG contract specifications outlining the futures
contracts:
Contract Specifications[182]
Gold (GCA)
Exchange: COMEX

Sector: Metal

Tick Size: 0.1

Tick Value: 10 USD

BPV: 100

Denomination: USD
Decimal Place: 1

Other applications

Jewelry

Because of the softness of pure (24k) gold, it is usually alloyed

with other metals for use in jewelry, altering its hardness and
ductility, melting point, color and other properties. Alloys with
lower karat rating, typically 22k, 18k, 14k or 10k, contain higher
percentages of copper, silver, palladium or other base metals in the
alloy.[24] Nickel is toxic, and its release from nickel white gold is
controlled by legislation in Europe.[24] Palladium-gold alloys are
more expensive than those using nickel.[184] High-karat white gold
alloys are more resistant to corrosion than are either pure silver or Moche gold necklace depicting feline
sterling silver. The Japanese craft of Mokume-gane exploits the heads. Larco Museum Collection,
color contrasts between laminated colored gold alloys to produce Lima, Peru.
decorative wood-grain effects.

By 2014, the gold jewelry industry was escalating despite a dip in

gold prices. Demand in the first quarter of 2014 pushed turnover to
$23.7 billion according to a World Gold Council report.

Gold solder is used for joining the components of gold jewelry by

high-temperature hard soldering or brazing. If the work is to be of
hallmarking quality, the gold solder alloy must match the fineness A 21.5k yellow gold pendant watch
of the work, and alloy formulas are manufactured to color-match so-called "Boule de Genève"
yellow and white gold. Gold solder is usually made in at least three (Geneva ball), c. 1890.
melting-point ranges referred to as Easy, Medium and Hard. By
using the hard, high-melting point solder first, followed by solders
with progressively lower melting points, goldsmiths can assemble complex items with several separate
soldered joints. Gold can also be made into thread and used in embroidery.

Electronics

Only 10% of the world consumption of new gold produced goes to industry,[11] but by far the most
important industrial use for new gold is in fabrication of corrosion-free electrical connectors in computers
and other electrical devices. For example, according to the World Gold Council, a typical cell phone may
contain 50 mg of gold, worth about 2 dollars 82 cents. But since nearly one billion cell phones are
produced each year, a gold value of US$2.82 in each phone adds to US$2.82 billion in gold from just this
application.[185] (Prices updated to November 2022)

Though gold is attacked by free chlorine, its good conductivity and general resistance to oxidation and
corrosion in other environments (including resistance to non-chlorinated acids) has led to its widespread
industrial use in the electronic era as a thin-layer coating on electrical connectors, thereby ensuring good
connection. For example, gold is used in the connectors of the more expensive electronics cables, such as
audio, video and USB cables. The benefit of using gold over other connector metals such as tin in these
applications has been debated; gold connectors are often criticized by audio-visual experts as unnecessary
for most consumers and seen as simply a marketing ploy. However, the use of gold in other applications in
electronic sliding contacts in highly humid or corrosive atmospheres, and in use for contacts with a very
high failure cost (certain computers, communications equipment, spacecraft, jet aircraft engines) remains
very common.[186]

Besides sliding electrical contacts, gold is also used in electrical contacts because of its resistance to
corrosion, electrical conductivity, ductility and lack of toxicity.[187] Switch contacts are generally subjected
to more intense corrosion stress than are sliding contacts. Fine gold wires are used to connect
semiconductor devices to their packages through a process known as wire bonding.

The concentration of free electrons in gold metal is 5.91×1022 cm−3 .[188] Gold is highly conductive to
electricity and has been used for electrical wiring in some high-energy applications (only silver and copper
are more conductive per volume, but gold has the advantage of corrosion resistance). For example, gold
electrical wires were used during some of the Manhattan Project's atomic experiments, but large high-
current silver wires were used in the calutron isotope separator magnets in the project.

It is estimated that 16% of the world's presently-accounted-for gold and 22% of the world's silver is
contained in electronic technology in Japan.[189]

Medicine

Metallic and gold compounds have long been used for medicinal purposes. Gold, usually as the metal, is
perhaps the most anciently administered medicine (apparently by shamanic practitioners)[190] and known to
Dioscorides.[191][192] In medieval times, gold was often seen as beneficial for the health, in the belief that
something so rare and beautiful could not be anything but healthy. Even some modern esotericists and
forms of alternative medicine assign metallic gold a healing power.

In the 19th century gold had a reputation as an anxiolytic, a therapy for nervous disorders. Depression,
epilepsy, migraine, and glandular problems such as amenorrhea and impotence were treated, and most
notably alcoholism (Keeley, 1897).[193]

The apparent paradox of the actual toxicology of the substance suggests the possibility of serious gaps in
the understanding of the action of gold in physiology.[194] Only salts and radioisotopes of gold are of
pharmacological value, since elemental (metallic) gold is inert to all chemicals it encounters inside the body
(e.g., ingested gold cannot be attacked by stomach acid). Some gold salts do have anti-inflammatory
properties and at present two are still used as pharmaceuticals in the treatment of arthritis and other similar
conditions in the US (sodium aurothiomalate and auranofin). These drugs have been explored as a means to
help to reduce the pain and swelling of rheumatoid arthritis, and also (historically) against tuberculosis and
some parasites.[195]
Gold alloys are used in restorative dentistry, especially in tooth restorations, such as crowns and permanent
bridges. The gold alloys' slight malleability facilitates the creation of a superior molar mating surface with
other teeth and produces results that are generally more satisfactory than those produced by the creation of
porcelain crowns. The use of gold crowns in more prominent teeth such as incisors is favored in some
cultures and discouraged in others.

Colloidal gold preparations (suspensions of gold nanoparticles) in water are intensely red-colored, and can
be made with tightly controlled particle sizes up to a few tens of nanometers across by reduction of gold
chloride with citrate or ascorbate ions. Colloidal gold is used in research applications in medicine, biology
and materials science. The technique of immunogold labeling exploits the ability of the gold particles to
adsorb protein molecules onto their surfaces. Colloidal gold particles coated with specific antibodies can be
used as probes for the presence and position of antigens on the surfaces of cells.[196] In ultrathin sections of
tissues viewed by electron microscopy, the immunogold labels appear as extremely dense round spots at the
position of the antigen.[197]

Gold, or alloys of gold and palladium, are applied as conductive coating to biological specimens and other
non-conducting materials such as plastics and glass to be viewed in a scanning electron microscope. The
coating, which is usually applied by sputtering with an argon plasma, has a triple role in this application.
Gold's very high electrical conductivity drains electrical charge to earth, and its very high density provides
stopping power for electrons in the electron beam, helping to limit the depth to which the electron beam
penetrates the specimen. This improves definition of the position and topography of the specimen surface
and increases the spatial resolution of the image. Gold also produces a high output of secondary electrons
when irradiated by an electron beam, and these low-energy electrons are the most commonly used signal
source used in the scanning electron microscope.[198]

The isotope gold-198 (half-life 2.7 days) is used in nuclear medicine, in some cancer treatments and for
treating other diseases.[199][200]

Cuisine
Gold can be used in food and has the E number 175.[201]
In 2016, the European Food Safety Authority published
an opinion on the re-evaluation of gold as a food
additive. Concerns included the possible presence of
minute amounts of gold nanoparticles in the food
additive, and that gold nanoparticles have been shown
to be genotoxic in mammalian cells in vitro.[202]
Gold leaf, flake or dust is used on and in some gourmet
foods, notably sweets and drinks as decorative
ingredient.[203] Gold flake was used by the nobility in
medieval Europe as a decoration in food and drinks,[204]
Danziger Goldwasser (German: Gold water of Danzig) or
Goldwasser (English: Goldwater) is a traditional German
herbal liqueur[205] produced in what is today Gdańsk,
Poland, and Schwabach, Germany, and contains flakes
of gold leaf. There are also some expensive (c. $1000) Cake with gold decoration served at
cocktails which contain flakes of gold leaf. However, the Amstel Hotel, Amsterdam
since metallic gold is inert to all body chemistry, it has no
taste, it provides no nutrition, and it leaves the body
unaltered.[206]
 Vark is a foil composed of a pure metal that is sometimes gold,[207] and is used for
garnishing sweets in South Asian cuisine.

Miscellanea
Gold produces a deep, intense red color when used as a
coloring agent in cranberry glass.
In photography, gold toners are used to shift the color of
silver bromide black-and-white prints towards brown or
blue tones, or to increase their stability. Used on sepia-
toned prints, gold toners produce red tones. Kodak
published formulas for several types of gold toners,
which use gold as the chloride.[208]
Gold is a good reflector of electromagnetic radiation Mirror for the James Webb Space
such as infrared and visible light, as well as radio waves. Telescope coated in gold to reflect
It is used for the protective coatings on many artificial infrared light
satellites, in infrared protective faceplates in thermal-
protection suits and astronauts' helmets, and in
electronic warfare planes such as the EA-6B Prowler.
Gold is used as the reflective layer on some high-end
CDs.
Automobiles may use gold for heat shielding. McLaren
uses gold foil in the engine compartment of its F1
model.[209]
Gold can be manufactured so thin that it appears semi-
transparent. It is used in some aircraft cockpit windows
for de-icing or anti-icing by passing electricity through it.
The heat produced by the resistance of the gold is
enough to prevent ice from forming.[210]
Gold is attacked by and dissolves in alkaline solutions of
potassium or sodium cyanide, to form the salt gold
cyanide—a technique that has been used in extracting Kamakshi Amman Temple with
metallic gold from ores in the cyanide process. Gold golden roof, Kanchipuram.
cyanide is the electrolyte used in commercial
electroplating of gold onto base metals and
electroforming.
Gold chloride (chloroauric acid) solutions are used to make colloidal gold by reduction with
citrate or ascorbate ions. Gold chloride and gold oxide are used to make cranberry or red-
colored glass, which, like colloidal gold suspensions, contains evenly sized spherical gold
nanoparticles.[211]
Gold, when dispersed in nanoparticles, can act as a heterogeneous catalyst of chemical
reactions.
In recent years, gold has been used as a symbol of pride by the autism rights movement, as
its symbol Au could be seen as similar to the word "autism".[212]

Toxicity
Pure metallic (elemental) gold is non-toxic and non-irritating when ingested[213] and is sometimes used as a
food decoration in the form of gold leaf.[214] Metallic gold is also a component of the alcoholic drinks
Goldschläger, Gold Strike, and Goldwasser. Metallic gold is approved as a food additive in the EU (E175
in the Codex Alimentarius). Although the gold ion is toxic, the acceptance of metallic gold as a food
additive is due to its relative chemical inertness, and resistance to being corroded or transformed into
soluble salts (gold compounds) by any known chemical process which would be encountered in the human
body.

Soluble compounds (gold salts) such as gold chloride are toxic to the liver and kidneys. Common cyanide
salts of gold such as potassium gold cyanide, used in gold electroplating, are toxic by virtue of both their
cyanide and gold content. There are rare cases of lethal gold poisoning from potassium gold
cyanide.[215][216] Gold toxicity can be ameliorated with chelation therapy with an agent such as
dimercaprol.

Gold metal was voted Allergen of the Year in 2001 by the American Contact Dermatitis Society; gold
contact allergies affect mostly women.[217] Despite this, gold is a relatively non-potent contact allergen, in
comparison with metals like nickel.[218]

A sample of the fungus Aspergillus niger was found growing from gold mining solution; and was found to
contain cyano metal complexes, such as gold, silver, copper, iron and zinc. The fungus also plays a role in
the solubilization of heavy metal sulfides.[219]

See also
Bulk leach extractable gold, for sampling ores
Chrysiasis (dermatological condition)
Digital gold currency, form of electronic currency
GFMS business consultancy
Gold fingerprinting, use impurities to identify an alloy
Gold standard in banking
List of countries by gold production
Tumbaga, alloy of gold and copper
Iron pyrite, fool's gold Iron pyrite or "fool's gold"
Nordic gold, non-gold copper alloy

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Further reading
Bachmann, H. G. The lure of gold : an artistic and cultural history (2006) online (https://archiv
e.org/details/lureofgold0000unse)
Bernstein, Peter L. The Power of Gold: The History of an Obsession (2000) online (https://ar
chive.org/details/powerofgoldhisto00bern)
Brands, H.W. The Age of Gold: The California Gold Rush and the New American Dream
(2003) excerpt (https://www.amazon.com/Age-Gold-California-American-Recover/dp/038572
0882/)
Buranelli, Vincent. Gold : an illustrated history (1979) online (https://archive.org/details/goldil
lustratedh00bura)' wide-ranging popular history
 Cassel, Gustav. "The restoration of the gold standard." Economica 9 (1923): 171–185.
online (https://www.jstor.org/stable/2548130)
Eichengreen, Barry. Golden Fetters: The Gold Standard and the Great Depression, 1919–
1939 (Oxford UP, 1992).
Ferguson, Niall. The Ascent of Money - Financial History of the World (2009) online (https://a
rchive.org/details/ascentofmoneyf00ferg)
Hart, Matthew, Gold: The Race for the World's Most Seductive Metal (https://books.google.co
m/books?id=kSI5AAAAQBAJ) Gold : the race for the world's most seductive metal", New
York: Simon & Schuster, 2013. ISBN 9781451650020
Johnson, Harry G. "The gold rush of 1968 in retrospect and prospect". American Economic
Review 59.2 (1969): 344–348. online (https://www.jstor.org/stable/1823687)
Kwarteng, Kwasi. War and Gold: A Five-Hundred-Year History of Empires, Adventures, and
Debt (2014) online (https://archive.org/details/wargoldfivehundr0000kwar)
Vilar, Pierre. A History of Gold and Money, 1450–1920 (1960). online (https://archive.org/det
ails/historyofgoldmon0000vila_c6t2)
Vilches, Elvira. New World Gold: Cultural Anxiety and Monetary Disorder in Early Modern
Spain (2010).

External links
"Gold" (https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Gold).
Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 11 (11th ed.). 1911.
Chemistry in its element podcast (https://web.archive.org/web/20080417110808/http://www.r
sc.org/chemistryworld/podcast/element.asp) (MP3) from the Royal Society of Chemistry's
Chemistry World: Gold (http://www.rsc.org/images/CIIE_Gold_48k_tcm18-118269.mp3)
www.rsc.org
Gold (http://www.periodicvideos.com/videos/079.htm) at The Periodic Table of Videos
(University of Nottingham)
Getting Gold 1898 book (https://web.archive.org/web/20080307000911/http://www.epa.gov/e
paoswer/other/mining/techdocs/gold.pdf), www.lateralscience.co.uk
Technical Document on Extraction and Mining of Gold (https://web.archive.org/web/2008030
7000911/http://www.epa.gov/epaoswer/other/mining/techdocs/gold.pdf) at the Wayback
Machine (archived 7 March 2008), www.epa.gov
Gold element information (https://www.rsc.org/periodic-table/element/79/gold) - rsc.org

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