ICT notes

INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS
Definition of a Computer
It is an electronic device that transforms/processes data to information.
Data: Raw facts that have less meaning to the user.
Information: Processed data that has much meaning to the user.

Physical parts of a computer

The System Unit
This is the main part of a computer that houses the Central Processing Unit (CPU), motherboard, storage
devices and other peripheral devices.

Peripheral Devices
These are devices that are connected to the system unit using special cables called interface cables. They
include
a. Keyboard. Keying input device used to enter data and instructions to the computer.
b. Mouse. Pointing input device used to enter commands/instructions to the computer through clicking.
c. Monitor. Output device used to display information.
Classification of Computers
Computers can be classified according to:
1. Size and Memory
2. Purpose
3. Functionality

Classification according to Size and Memory

Supercomputer
Mainframe
Minicomputer
Microcomputer eg
✓ Desktop
✓ Laptop
✓ Mobile phone
Why mobile phone is considered to be a computer
• It is programmable
• Has ability to save data/information
• Has a screen
• Has a keypad just like a computer keyboard
• Can be used to access the internet
Advantages of microcomputers
• Portable
• They are cheap
• Display active color screen
• Power batteries serve as ups
Disadvantages of microcomputers
• Less expansion options
• They are easily stolen
• Low processing power

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Classification according Purpose
1. General computers
This computer can do or handle a variety of tasks when loaded with appropriate programs.
2. Special computers
They are designed to serve a specific purpose or to accomplish one particular task eg a calculator
3. Dedicated Computers
They can handle any task but it is a dedicated to one task.

Classification according to Functionality

1. Digital computers: They handle discrete/digital data.
2. Analog computers: Deals with data that keeps on changing in time (Continuous data/Analog).
3. Hybrid computers: The computers can handle both analog and digital data.

Development of Computers
Historical development of computers can be traced back to the time human beings were struggling to
invent non electronic tools that would simplify arithmetic such As Abacus and Napiers bones.
a. Abacus
Abacus was a Chinese counting instrument which dates back to 3000 BC. The Abacus has bead-like parts
that move along rods. Each bead above the middle bar stands for five units. Each bead below stands for
one unit.
b. Napiers bones.
Was developed by John Napier, a Scottish mathematician in the 17 th century. It help in multiplication and
division.
c. The analytical engine
This was designed by English mathematician, Charles Babbage in 1832. The engine is recognized as the
first real computer and Babbage as the father of computing.

d. Electronic computers
It took several years after Babbage designed the analytical engine to come up with an electronic
computer. The age of modern electronic computers can be traced back to 1951. The computers are
classified into five generations depending on the technology used to develop them. These are:
First Generation Computers (1940 - 1958)
Used thermionic valves or vacuum tubes
Advantages
• Vacuum tubes technology made it possible with advent of electronic digital computers It was
the fastest calculating device that time.
Disadvantages
• Too bulky
• Unreliable
• Had limited memory
• Generated a lot of heat
• Consumed a lot of power
Examples
IBM 650, UNIAC

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Second Generation Computers (1958 – 1964)

They used transistors
Advantages
Smaller than first generation computers
More reliable
Generated less heat than the first generation
Less prone to hardware failure
Disadvantages
• Required air condition for cooling
• Required frequent maintenance
• It was very expensive
Examples
IBM1401, Honeywall200, CDC1604 e.t.c.

Third Generation Computers (1964 – 1970)

They used Integrated Circuit (IC)
Advantages
• Smaller in size
• More reliable than the previous ones
• Emitted lesser heat than the previous ones
• Less maintenance cost
• Less power consumption than the first and the second generation
Disadvantages
• Highly sophisticated for the manufacture of Integrated Circuit Costly
Examples
IBM360, BurroughsB5600

Fourth Generation Computers (1970-1989)

They are characterized by the use of Large Scale Integrated Circuit (LSIC)
Advantages
• Smaller in size
• More reliable than previous generation computers
• Generated neglible heat
• Faster than previous generation computers
• Less prone to hardware failure
• Portable
Disadvantages
Highly sophisticated technology in manufacturing of Large Scale Integrated chip
Examples
IBM3033, Buroughs67700

Fifth Generation Computers (From 1989)

These are today’s computers.
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• Expected to do parallel processing
• Based on logical inference operations
• Expected to make use of artificial intelligence(Mimic human intelligence)

Features of a Computer
▪ Automation: Computers work with minimum human intervention once supplied with data and
instructions.
▪ Accuracy: Computers are ever accurate but entirely depend on the data entered.
▪ Speed: Performs tasks in very short period.
▪ Storage: Computers can store large volumes of data and information.
▪ Versatile: Ability of doing different tasks as per instructions.
▪ Diligence: Work for a long period of time without getting bored

Disadvantages of Computers
• Computers are very expensive
• Cuts down on employment opportunities
• Needs expertise which is expensive to hire and maintain
• They create eye problems
• Loss of information if not well managed

Areas where Computers are used

1. Supermarkets: Used to keep in stock control i.e. keep accounts of what is in the store, what has been
sold, what is out of stock e.t.c
2. Offices: First access and receiving information, automate faster message distribution and document
processes.
3. Banks: Special cash dispensing machines called Automated Teller Machine (ATM for cash
withdrawal and deposition service. They provide better record keeping and document processing.
4. Industries: Monitoring and controlling industrial processes e.g. using robots
5. Hospitals: Keeping patients records for easier access to treatment and diagnosis. Computerized
diagnosis in laboratories.
6. Communication: Sending and receiving emails, teleconferencing, telecommuting, facsimile and e-
calling.
7. Transport: Monitoring automobile traffic, aircraft navigation and making flight reservation.
8. Law enforcement
• Biometric analysis- study of human biological characteristics to know fingerprints, voice and
facial features. Video cameras e.g. in banks.
• Development of strong military bases which have international coordination by use of computer
radar.
• Jet fighters are computerized with connection to control centres.
9. Education: Computer Aided Learning (CAL) and Computer Aided Teaching (CAT).
10. Domestic and entertainment/ home: used at home for recreation purposes and keeping budgets.
11. Library services: Easy access and update of books and other library materials.

Advantages of a Computer
• Stores large amount of information in a limited space
• Speed: performs tasks in very short periods.

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• Efficiency: creates an all-round saving on space and time.
• Consistency: gives the same results given the same data and instructions.
• Secrecy: information is fairly protected if computer system is well managed.
• Versatility: Can do the same thing over and over again without being worn out.

Computer Laboratory, Safety Precautions and Practice

Considerations for a Computer Laboratory
1. The number of computers to be installed.
2. Size of the laboratory.
3. The number of user that the laboratory can accommodate.
4. Reliability of a source of power.

Safety Precautions and Practices in a computer lab

1. Behavior in Computer Laboratory
• Avoid smoking or exposing computer to dust. Smoke and dust damage computer components.
• Avoid carrying food and beverages: may damage components and liquids may cause rusting
and electrical shocks.
• Avoid unnecessary movement because you may accidentally knock down peripherals.
• Follow the correct procedure for storing and shutting down computers.
• Reporting accidents immediately. Ask for assistance.
2. Ventilation: to avoid suffocation and overheating. This avoids damage of electronic parts.
3. Lighting: to avoid eyestrains that leads to headaches, stress and fatigue. User may adjust brightness
of computer monitor. Also radiation filter screen may be fitted.
4. Protection against fire: Use or fit gaseous fire extinguisher.
5. Dust and dump control
• Special curtains reduce dust entry
• Covering computers
6. Regulate humidity to remain at an optimum of 50%.by the use of humidifier and dehumidifier.
Low humidity allows static electricity to build up and cause damage to computer
components. High humidity causes corrosion, destroy devices and electrical faults.
7. Furniture: Strong and wide enough to accommodate all peripheral devices. User seats must be
comfortable and have straight back rest that allows someone to sit upright to avoid muscle pains
and aches.
8. Burglar proofing:
• Fit strong metallic grills and locks on doors and windows
• Don’t welcome strangers to computer room
• Install security alarms at strategic access points to alert security personnel incase of break in.
9. Stable power supply: Functions of Uninterrupted Power Supply (UPS)- Regulate high voltage
• Regulate low voltage Provide temporary power Notify when power goes off.

Keyboard Layout
1. Alphanumeric Keys
Comprises of numbers and all alphabets, symbols like @,!,$,%,^,&,*,(,),?,>,< e.t.c. Other keys
include Caps lock, Enter key, Tab, Spacebar, Back space.

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a) Caps Lock: When on letters typed appear in uppercase and when of letters appear in
lowercase.
b) Enter keys: When pressed it forces the cursor to move to the beginning of the next line.
c) Tab keys: Used to move the cursor at set intervals.
d) Back space: Deletes characters to the left from the cursor position.
2. Function keys
They are always located along the top of the keyboard. They are labeled F1, F2 to F12.
3. Cursor Movement and Editing Keys
Cursor Movement Keys
a) Arrow Keys: Used to move the cursor up, down, left and right.
b) Page up and page down keys: Moves the cursor one page up or down.
c) Home and End keys: Pressing Home key moves the cursor to the beginning of the current line.
End key moves the cursor to the end of the current line.
Editing Keys
a) Insert key: It helps the user to insert or replace a character at the cursor position.
b) Delete (Del) key: This key deletes characters at the cursor position from left to right.
4. Special purpose Keys
They are rarely used singly but in combination with other keys to give special instructions to the
computer. They include SHIFT, CTRL, ALT and ESC.
5. Numeric Keypad keys
Consist of a set of numbers 0 to 9 and the arithmetic signs +,-, *, / and are located on the
right side of the keyboard.

COMPUTER SYSTEM
Definition: Collection of entities that work together to process and manage data to information.

Elements of a Computer System

1. Hardware- Physical or tangible computer components e.g. keyboard, mouse etc.
2. Software- Instructions that guide the computer on what to do.
3. Liveware- The computer user.

Hardware Configuration

CPU PERIPHERALS

ALU MAINMEMORY CONTROL UNIT INPUT OUTPUT STORAGE

Central Processing Unit (CPU)

It processes data and controls all computer operations. Elements of the CPU are:
a. Arithmetic and logic unit (ALU)- Performs arithmetic and logical operations.

b. Control Unit- Part that coordinates activities in the CPU as well as input, storage and output
operations.
1. Fetch phase-Access instruction in sequence
2. Decode phase-Interprets instructions

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3. Execution phase-execution of commands

c. Main memory
It forms an integral element of the processor. It’s tasks are;
✓ Holds data awaiting processing
✓ Holds data being processed
✓ Holds data that has been processed awaiting to be output
Computer memory can be classified into:
a. Read Only Memory (ROM)
Its content can be read but cannot be changed during normal computer operations. It is
normally used for permanent storage of data and instructions that remains unchanged for a
long period of time.
Characteristics of random only memory are:
▪ One can only read its contents but cannot write in it.
▪ RAM is non-volatile storage because its contents does not disappears when the computer is switched off.
▪ Its content is programmer defined ie the programmer dictates what is to be contained in the ROM.

Types of ROMs
1. Mask Read Only Memory (MROM): contents cannot be changed once written on it
by manufacturers.
2. Programmable ROM (PROM): the user rather than the manufacturers can after store
data but once only.
3. Erasable Programmable ROM (EPROM): the content can be reprogrammed by
exposing it to ultraviolet light.
4. Electrically Erasable Programmable ROM (EEPROM): the content can be erased and
programmed using electricity. Characteristics of ROM
✓ The content cannot be changed unless written in a special type.
✓ Non-volatile: data cannot be lost when the computer is switched off.

b. Random Access Memory (RAM)

Also knows as working storage. It is used to hold instructions and data needed by currently running
applications. The two main types of RAM are:
1. Static RAM: the data doesn’t need to be refreshed, it is capable of handling data
extremely faster. It is also reliable.
2. Dynamic (DRAM): The data must be refreshed i.e. data must be read and written
periodically. It stores more information than static RAM.
Characteristics of random access memory are:
▪ Data can read (retrieved) and written (stored) in it.
▪ RAM is a temporary (volatile) storage because its contents disappears when the computer is switched off.
▪ Its content is user defined ie the user dictates what is to be contained in the RAM.

Types of DRAM
1) Fast Page Mode (FPM)
2) Extended Data Out (EDO) : improvement on FPM
3) Extended Correcting Code (ECC): Special DRAM, corrects errors, and used on savers.
4) Synchronous Dynamic Random Access Memory (SDRAM): twice fast as EDO. Run at a
speed of system bus up to 100 – 133 MHz
5) Rhombus Dynamic RAM (RDRAM): has a data transfer rate of 800 MHz
6) Double-Data rate (DDR): fast DRAM with module speed at which SRAM can transfer data to
the processor.
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7) Video RAM (VRAM): Special type of memory that is used only with video adapter.
8) Window RAM (WRAM): a faster version of video memory.

DRAM in system unit on memory chamber of laptops

1) Dual-inline Package (DIP)
2) Single-inline Memory Module (SIMM)
3) Dual Inline Memory Module (DIMM)
4) Small Outline DIMM (SODIMM)
5) Micro DIMM

Special Purpose memories

1. Buffers: Are special memories that are found in input/output devices. Input data is
held in the input buffer while processed output is held in the output buffer. Eg
printer’s buffer for storing printing jobs.
They provide temporary storage for finished tasks so that the CPU is set free to carry out
other activities instead of waiting for all data to be entered in information to be output.
2. Registers: They hold one piece of data at a time and they are inside the CPU.
Examples
a) An accumulator: temporarily holds the result of the last step of the Arithmetic
and Logic Unit.
b) An address register: Temporarily holds the next piece of data waiting to be processed.
c) Instruction register: Temporarily holds an instruction just before it is
interrupted into a form that the CPU can understand.
d) Storage register: It temporary holds a piece of data that is on its way to and from the
CPU and the main memory.
3. Cache Memory
It helps the processor to access data and instructions faster due to incorporation of small high
speed type of Static RAM than it would have taken to fasten it from the relatively slow
Dynamic
RAM.

Types of Cache Memory

• Level 1 (Primary cache): located inside microprocessors.
• Level 2 (Extended cache): may be inside microprocessors or mounted on the
motherboard.
• Level 3 (Latest cache): works like level 2 to optimize system performance.

INPUT DEVICES
Devices that accept data from external environment and encode it into a form understandable
to the computer for processing.

Classification of Input Devices

1. Keying devices: use buttons to make entries e.g. keyboard and keypad
2. Pointing devices: Mouse, trackball, joystick, lightpen
3. Scanning: capture data directly from source

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SCANNING DEVICES
a. Optical scanners
1. Optical Mark Recognition (OMR): Detects marks made on a piece of paper using a
soft pen or pencil.
Advantages
• Low error rates
• Conspicuous (obvious/easy) errors are corrected
• Minimize manual work
Disadvantages
• Relatively slow
• Difficult verification of worked data
• Not widely used in business
Application
• Making of multiple choice exams
• Market research questionnaires
• Payroll entry
• Traffic surveys

2. Optical Bar Recognition (OBR): Used to read bar codes.

Advantages
• Barcodes can be printed by normal printing methods
• Type of item or price doesn’t have to be repeatedly written or retyped
Disadvantages
• Bar codes can be read by machines
• Only numbers can be coded this way
• Are relatively fixed, so they are unsuitable for recording prices which can change
frequently
Applications
• On labels and on shelves for stock taking
• Printed on shop goods e.g. supermarkets
• In libraries
3. Optical Character Recognition (OCR): Not only does it scan characters but also can
scan real objects, pictures and drawings
Advantages
• Limited errors
• Early methods
• Document design is less complicated
• Character can be read by people
Disadvantages
• Expensive or costly
• May require redesigning quite frequent
• Only certain font is applicable

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b. Magnetic scanners
1. Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR): Allows special devices to read
magnetic characters written in a special format.
Advantages
• Fast, accurate and automatic
• Codes are both machine and human readable
• Reduces forgery
Disadvantages
• Limited to only 14 characters
• Based on magnetism and can easily be tempered with once exposed to strong magnetic
fields.
Application
• Banking industry for cheques

2. Magnetic Strip Recognition (MSR): Read data coded onto a magnetic strip.
Advantages
• Simple to produce
• Not easily damaged
• Stores fairly large number of characters
Disadvantages
• Data can be changed or erased by magnetic fields

Applications
• On credit card
• On bank cards
• As tags on clothes
• As a phone card

KEYING DEVICES
These are devices that use keys whereby the user has to press/touch the keys during data entry. The
following are categories of keying devices.
1. Traditional Keyboard. It is the most common type of keying device. It is full sized rigid
keyboard.
2. Flexible keyboard: it is portable keyboard that can be folded and packed into s bag.
3. Ergonomic Keyboard: designed to provide comfort and allocate wrist strain.
4. Keypad: Miniature keyboard used in PDAs, laptops and mobile phones.
5. Braille keyboard: designed for the blind.

POINTING DEVICES
These are devices used for controlling a pointer/cursor on the screen.
Mouse
1. Standard mouse: has a ball underneath, two buttons and optional scroll button located
between left and right buttons.
2. Optical mouse. Uses digital camera to control cursor on the screen.

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3. Cordless/ wireless mouse: battery powered mouse that uses radio or infrared waves
instead of being physically connected to the system unit.

Trackball
It’s advantage over mouse is that it neither requires an extra space nor a flat surface for
movement. This is because its ball is located at the top which is rotated using a figure.

Joystick
An input device like a car gear that can be moved sideways, upwards or downwards to control the
position of the cursor. It is mainly used for playing computer games.

Light pen and stylus

The lightpen is a hand held device that has just a light sensitive point. It can make
selections, place images, draw and indicate dimensions by simply touching the screen.
Doesn’t emit light but reacts to light emitted by the display using a photosensitive detector
at its base.

OTHER DEVICES THAT USES OTHER TECHNOLOGIES

Speech Recognition/ Voice input: This is where microphone is used to enter data/ information or
spoken words into a computer. Situations for speech recognition:
✓ Where hands are busy handling documents
✓ Due to movement
✓ Disability e.g.People without hands

Touch screen, Digitizers and Cameras

Touch screen: Use touch sensitive screen where the computer detects the position of the
finger on the screen and responds accordingly.
Digitizers: Almost similar to light pen but has a graph tablet on which user writes using a
pen like device called a style
Cameras: Store images in digital form.

Other Examples of Input Devices

Point of sale (POS) Terminal
This consists of numeric keypads and a few controls or function keys. They are normally used in
computerized wholesale or retail organizations like supermarkets.
Input Facility Considerations
✓ Cost
✓ Input Speed
✓ Volume
✓ Accuracy
✓ Reliability
✓ Mode of operation
✓ Appropriateness

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Problems faced while collecting data
• Preparation of source document is slow hence prone to mistakes.
• Low typing speed leads to keyboard bottleneck.
• It is wasteful to use a media which can only be used once like punched cards.
• Mistakes can be made when copying data from one medium to another.
• Translation delays or losses can occur if data is physically transferred to the computer.
• Data entry can be expensive

The Main methods of data entry

1. Source document reader: Orders, sheets and forms are batched and converted into
computer acceptable medium.
2. Online data entry (keyboard entry): Data is entered directly into computer one
translation at a time under program control.
3. Direct data capture: Data capture directly without conversion stage.

OUTPUT DEVICES
Devices that accept information from internal environment and then decodes it in a form
understandable to user.
Are peripheral devices that a computer uses to give out information produced after the processing
operations.
Classification of Output Devices
1. Soft copy: includes monitors/ VDU and the speakers
2. Hard copy: Printers and plotters
3. Microfiche: Computer Output on Microform (COM)

Visual Display Unit (VDU)/ Screen

Is used to display information in the form of text, pictures and video, enabling the user to monitor
what is going on in the computer.
Types
Cathode Ray Tube (CRT). Consist of a long glass tube with an electron gun on one end and a screen
on the other.
Liquid Crystal display (LCD). This uses special liquid crystals to display images.
Gas plasma Display (GPD). They make use of gas (neon gas) instead of liquid crystals.

Monitor display terminologies

As you work with any of the three monitors, you are likely to come across the following terms
Pixel. Stands for picture elements, are tiny dots which are used to form the images displayed on the
screen.
Colour depth. Refers to number of colours which can be displayed by a pixel.
Resolution. This is the number of pixels per inch on the screen usually given in dots per inch (dpi) or
bits
Refresh rate. This refers to the number of times that the image on the RAM is used to refresh the
image displayed on the screen.
Display size. This refers to the size of the monitor, it is measured in inches as the diagonal length of
the screen eg top right to bottom left.

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Video Graphic Adapters
For a monitor to display information, it must be connected through a video port to a video adapter
plugged or integrated on the motherboard.
Examples of Video graphic adapters
1. Monochrome Display Adapter (MDA)- display text in only one color.
2. Hercules Graphic Adapter (HGA)- Support monochrome image and text
3. Color Graphic Adapter (CGA)- Display using sixteen colours.
4. Enhanced Graphic Adapter (EGA)- An improvement over colours but use 16 colours.
5. Video Graphic Array (VGA) – Offers at most 256 colors.
6. Super Video Graphic Array (SVGA) – an enhanced VGA

Common Types of Flat panel Display

1. Liquid Crystal Display (LCD): Doesn’t emit light of their own instead have tiny liquid
crystals that reflect light falling on them from the environment.
2. Electro Luminescent: Improved LCD. Emit light when electrically charged.
3. Gas plasma: Use gas that emits light in presence of electric charge.
4. Thin Film Transistor (TFT): This is the latest technology advancement that provides high
quality resolution.

Hardcopy output devices

Printers
Are primarily used to produce information on a piece of paper. The quality of a hardcopy depends on
the printer’s printing mechanism. Printers are classified according to printing mechanisms.
How printers are classified
a) Speed
b) How the produce the print; character, line or page printers
c) How they provide prints on the stationery; impact or non-impact printers Types
a) Impact printers: Dot matrix, daisy wheel, golf ball and chain printers.
b) Non-impact printers: Thermal, inkjet, photo and laser printers

Impact Non-impact
Slow Fast
Use ink ribbon Thermal/electrostatic principle
Cheaper Costly due to technology involved
Noisy Quiet

Printers Consideration
1. Printers initial price. The cost of purchasing a printer.
2. Printing speed. Number of copies per minute
3. Running cost. Subsequent maintenance cost and cost of consumable items.
4. Print quality. Clarity of the printer’s printout.
5. Colour printing. Ability to print in colour.

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Plotters
They are used to produce graphical output e.g. maps and diagrams.
1. Flatbed plotters: Has a flat surface which the stationery is placed for the pen to be
moving over it in all directions to produce graphical output.
2. Drum plotters: Has a drum onto which stationery is placed for the drawing to be
possible.

Difference between a printer and a plotter

Printer: produces hardcopy of information on papers.
Plotter: Produces big charts e.g. maps, pictures and drawings. Used for printing
geographical, architectural and engineering drawings e.g. maps, advertisements posters
to be placed on bill boards, machinery parts etc.

Computer Output (originated) microform (COM)

Provides photograph type of output into the microform (photographs reduced documents on
films)

Computer Bus
Communication medium within a computer that allow different elements of the computer to
communicate with one another.
1. Address bus: Pathway used to locate storage position in memory for the data to be
executed.
2. Data bus: Pathway where the actual data transfer takes place.
3. Control bus: Pathway for all timings and controlling functions sent by the control unit
to the parts of the system

Central processing unit (CPU)

Diagrammatic representation of central processing unit

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AUXILIARY/ SECONDARY STORAGE DEVICES

These provide alternative long term storage of data.
Factors to consider when choosing a storage device
• Volume of data to be stored
• The cost
• The quantity or size of data it can hold

Magnetic Tapes
These are sequential access devices. Implies that information is at the end of tape the
program will have to read almost entire tape which may take time to read. Data recorded as
series of magnetic dots across tracks on the tape cassette when characters are stored serially
down the length of the tape.
Sequential access medium: Data is stored across magnetic tape
Serial access medium: data is stored along the media
Advantages • Slow since they are sequential
• Light and easy to carry access media
• Effective for batch applications • Gaps between (called Inter
since they are cheaper Record Gap, IRG) waste
storage space.
Disadvantages

Magnetic Disks
Floppy Disks (Diskettes)
Information is recorded on number of concentric circles called tracks. Tracks are divided into
sectors. Sectors and tracks have same storage capacity because inner tracks have a high
density. Diskettes are direct access storage medium (DASM) and access time is made up of 3
parameters.
1. Seek time: Time taken by the read/write (R/W) head to locate right track that contains
content.
2. Rotational delay time: Time taken by drive mortar to spin the diskette past R/W head.
3. Data transfer time: Time taken by the R/W head to interpret content and send it as
computer input.

Advantages Disadvantages
1. Exchangeable and easy to carry 1. Slower than hard disk
2. Can be used with PCs with no hard disk 2. Less storage capacity
3. They are cheap 3. Damaged by light, magnet and
dirt
4. Used for back up

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Densities DS/DD HD DS/DD HD
Size (inches) 5.25 5.25 3.5 3.5
Capacity 360KB 1.2MB 720KB 1.44MB
Tracks 40 80 80 80
Sectors 9 15 9 155
Head 2 2 2 2
Type Flexible Flexible Rigid Rigid

Zip Disks
Come with portable external drive and are slightly large and thicker in size and has a
capacity of up to 250MB

Jaz Disks
Come with portable external drive and have a capacity of 1GB to 2GB and have high access
speeds.

Advantages of Magnetic Disks

1. Light and portable
2. Effective for batch application
3. Cheap

Care of Magnetic Storage Media

a) Keep them away from magnets.
b) Keep them away from extreme temperature
c) Never touch the disk surface
d) Never put weighty objects on them
e) Never use clips to hold the disk
f) Keep them away from dust, moisture and low and high humidity

OPTICAL (LASER) DISKS

They are recorded using a laser beam (very strong concentrated light) that burns patterns as fine
circular tracks (indentations) on the surface. Data is retrieved using relatively low power laser.

Examples
Super disk (SD) LS-120
They resemble 3 ¼ floppy disk but has a high capacity of 128 MB

Compact Disk (CD)

They have a high recording density of about 700MB. There are three types of compact disks:
1. CD-ROM (Read Only Memory): The recorded data cannot be changed, deleted or added.
2. CD-R (Recordable): They are initially blank but when data is recorded it becomes permanent.
3. CD-RW (Re-writable): Data can be overwritten/ added or erased.

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CD-ROM and CD-R are referred to as WORM (Write Once Read Many) since you cannot
write the second time but you can read many times

Digital Versatile Disk (DVD)

They resemble the compact disks but have a greater storage capacity up to 17GB

Optical Tapes
They resemble magnetic tapes but they use optical technology

Optical Card

HARD DISK
Advantages
1. They offer cheap storage
2. They are well protected since they are housed in the system unit
3. Fast in terms of access retrieval and saving of data

Care for the Hard disk

a) Keep them away from smoke and dust.
b) Use the right procedure to switch off the computer to allow the R/W head to move from the
disk surface to avoid scratching on rotating surface
c) Do not Expose to magnetic property

Minimal Requirements for a multimedia computer

• A Video Graphic Array (VGA) or Super Video Graphic Array (SVGA) card and monitor.
• A sound card
• Speakers
• CD or DVD drive
• FM/TV card

PORTS

Power and Interface Cables

Power cables are used to connect the computer to main power outlet.
Interface cables connect all peripherals to the motherboard and transmit data signals.
Power supply unit supplies power to motherboard and other internal device

Types of Cables and Ports

1. Parallel ports: They transmit data simultaneously using a set of connectors- 8bit
parallel cables. They are faster over short distance. Are used to connect Printers,
removable storage drives and network adapter. Port is (PT1) 25 PIN

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2. Serial ports: They transmit one bit at a time. They are slower than parallel ports but
they support two way communications. They are 25 pin and 9 pin. COM 1 and
COM2. Used by the serial printers.

3. Universal Serial Bus (USB)

They transmit one bit at a time but at a very high speed and provide quality data transmission
about 15m distance. – Used to connect External storage devices, cameras etc.
Advantages of USB
• Provide very high speed
• Quality data transmission over long distance
• Support a wide range of peripheral devices

4. Small Computer System Interface (SCSI) - Use parallel method but faster than
parallel cables. The port connects up to 8 peripheral devices.

Other ports and connectors

• 5 PIN DIN and 6 pin (PS/2): used by keyboard and mouse
• 9 pin D and 15 HI-pin-D: monitors
• Audio connectors: jack plugs found on sound adapter for connecting speakers, microphone
and other portable audio equipments.

COMPUTER SOFTWARE
These programs installed in a computer or set of instructions that guide the computer on what to do.
Three ways of classifying computer software are:
A. Classification according to Purpose
1. System software
They perform a variety of fundamental operations that avails computer resources to the user.
They are:
Operating System
A set of complex programs that work together to control execution of user programs called applications.
Examples: MS Windows, UNIX, LINUX, Macintosh (Mac OS) and OS/2.
Importance of the operating systems:
➢ Platform for loading programs
➢ Acts as a link between applications and computer hardware
➢ Manages input and output and storage operations
Firmware (Store Logic)
A combination of both software and hardware recorded permanently on electronic chips mounted on the
motherboard. May hold operating system, utility programs, language processors etc.
Utility Software
A special program that performs commonly used services that make certain computing aspects go on
smoothly e.g. sorting, copying, disk management etc. There are two types:
1. System level: Help user to work with the operating system and its function. It tells whether the
command entered is wrong and give suggestion on how the error can be corrected.
2. Application level: Make use of an application program smoother and efficiently.
Functions of utility software
Reporting of errors which occur during program execution
➢ Control input and output devices
➢ Protest use hardware and data from misuse
➢ Provide program testing routines
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➢ Provides communication between computer user and each program
➢ Memory management
➢ Maintenance of internal time clock and log of system usage by all users.
Network software
Establish communication between two or more computers by linking them using a communication
channel like cables to create a computer network e.g. Novell Netware
Translators
2. Application (packages) software
Programs that are designed to help user accomplish specific tasks.
Software Uses Examples
Word processors Typing long documents MS-Word, Word Pro
Spread sheet Calculating budgets MS-Excel, Quatropro
Desktop Publishing (DTP) Designing publications Adobe PageMaker, MSPublisher
Computer Aided Design (CAD)
Technical drawing AutoCAD
Database Keeping records and files MS-ACCESS, Dbase
Graphic Design Creating and manipulating graphics
Corel Draw, Adobe Photoshop
Internet Software
Used in communication and perusing the internet.

B. Classification according to Acquisition

1. In-house developed programs/ Custom design programs
They are designed to meet the needs of a specific user or organization
2. Standard/ Vendor of the shelf software
Designed by software engineers to be used by different users. When closely related software are put
under one software it is known as suit/ integrated/ general software. While packages are known as single
purpose software e.g. Lotus Suite, MS Office etc.
Advantages of Standard Software
➢ Less expensive
➢ They’re readily available for almost any tasks
➢ Well tested before they are released hence chances of errors are minimal
➢ Easily modified (customized) to meet specific user needs
➢ Other software can be linked to it and use the same data
Disadvantages
➢ Easily pirated
➢ They may have some features not needed by the user which may take extra storage.
➢ They may require the user to change processes and hardware for compatibility which may in
turn be expensive.
➢ Do not meet all user requirements
B. Classification according to the End-User-License
1. Open source (Non-proprietary). Refers to software whose source code is freely made available to
users.
2. Proprietary. Are those software whose source code is hidden from users.

Consideration for a Computer System

Criteria for selecting a computer system
➢ Identify the user requirement
➢ Evaluate the hardware requirements that will meet users’ needs
➢ Evaluate the software requirements
Hardware Considerations
a) Processing speed: For faster data processing the speed of the processor must be relatively high.

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b) Memory capacity: At least 128MB RAM. There are also factors to be considered when buying a
memory module-The type of module supported by motherboard
-Whether there is an empty slot on the motherboard
-Compatibility of the module with the existing one
-Module capacity
c) Warranty: Arrangement between the buyer and the seller whereby incase the product fails during the
agreed period of time it is taken care by the seller free of charge or for an agreed fee. Things to consider
in a warranty –The scope of cover
-Call out response and liability agreement
-Regular preventive maintenance
d) Cost: Amount required to purchase and run the computer. The cost is determined by the processor,
size, and the memory capacity.
e) Upgradability and compatibility: Whether the hardware chosen can be easily upgraded to
accommodate emergent technologies.
f) User’s needs: Can it meet the unique needs like for the disabled?
g) Monitor: Always consider the size, resolution and the technology involved.
h) Multimedia capability: It should have speakers, CD/DVD drive, sound card, VGA or
SVGA card.
Software Requirements
a) Authenticity: Always consider genuine, valid and legitimacy and developers license.
b) Documentation: Manual from the developers that guide the user on installation, usage and
maintenance. –User guides on the following
-License
-Manual guide
-Installation process
-Quick reference
-Warranty
c) Reliability and security: Consider whether the software offers good security to confidential and
private information.
d) User friendliness: How easily the user can interact with the software.
e) Compatibility and system configuration: Consider whether the software can work with the computer
at hand.
f) Cost: Always consider the cost and whether it serves the purpose.
g) Users’ needs: The purpose of the software.
h) Portability: Consider whether it can be installed in different computers.

OPERATING SYSTEMS

Definition.

 An Operating system is a set of programs that is used to manage the basic hardware resources of a
computer.

 This is the main program that controls the execution of user applications, and enables the user to
access the hardware & software resources of the computer.

NB: When the computer is switched on, the OS programs run & check to ensure that all parts of the
computer are functioning properly.

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Operating system’s platform.

In a data processing environment, the user sees a computer as a group of application programs that enable
him/her to accomplish specific tasks.
However, application programs do not use the hardware devices directly. They send messages through
the operating system which has the capability to give instructions to the hardware to perform a particular
task.

The user communicates his/her intentions to the OS through the use of a special instruction set known as
Commands.

User
(Runs Application programs)

Application software
(Send users requests to the OS)

Operating system
(Receives & controls execution of
Application programs)

Hardware
(Receives & executes OS commands)

As in this diagram, the OS is a layer of software on top of the bare hardware, and is used to manage all
parts of computer hardware & also act as an interface between the user & the computer.

The OS monitors & controls computer operations so that the user can do useful work on the computer,
and it also enables Application programs use the hardware in a proper, orderly and efficient way.

An OS consists of a special program called a Supervisor (Kernel/ Executive), which is stored in ROM
of the Main Memory. The Supervisor/Kernel contains the most necessary commands and procedures &
controls the running of all other programs, each performing a particular service.

NB. The programs that make up the Operating system are too large to fit in main memory at one time.
These programs are usually installed on a direct access backing storage device, such as the hard disk.
When the Supervisor needs a particular program, it is read from the disk & loaded into the RAM
memory, where it can be executed.

Reasons why an Operating system is needed in a computer (why operating systems were
developed).

i). Modern computer systems are so complex & fast such that they need internal control.

ii). To ensure that the full system software facilities are readily available.

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iii). Due to the complexity of systems, jobs need to be controlled in what they are allowed to do for
security.

iv). To increase the throughput, i.e., to increase the amount of data that can be processed through the
system in a given period of time.

v). Improve communication between the user & the computer.

vi). To make complex tasks very simple for the user to carry out.

vii). It helps the computer to correct any problem that might occur.

When an error occurs that can cause the computer to stop functioning, a diagnostic message is
displayed. The meaning of the message is then checked in the computer operations manual.

viii). Reduces job setup time.

When one job is running, other programs can be read onto the job queue. The Input/Output devices
can also be made ready without delay.

ix). Most computers allow many programs to be run & also many users to use the system at the same
time.

Devices/resources under the control of an Operating System.

A computer is composed of a set of software-controlled resources that enable movement, storage and
processing of data & information.

As a resource manager, the OS manages the following basic resources/ devices: -

1. Processor.
2. Main memory (RAM).
3. Secondary storage devices.
4. Input/Output devices and their Ports.
5. Communication devices and their Ports.
6. Files.

FUNCTIONS OF AN OPERATING SYSTEM.

The OS creates a working environment in which the user can run programs. The general functions of the
operating system are:

1. Processor management.

The processor is a scarce resource. It executes tasks called processes.

A Multi-tasking computer system can run several applications simultaneously. At times, several tasks
may require processing, hence creating competition. However, the CPU can only execute one
program at any one time.

Therefore, access to the CPU must be carefully controlled & monitored. The OS must decide, which
program will be allowed into the system, and for how long.

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To do this, the OS arranges the tasks according to priority and has the ability to stop a particular task
to allow the processor to service another task.

2. Memory allocation & loading of programs.

 Programs must be loaded into memory before they can be executed, and moved out of memory
when they are no longer required. Therefore, before processing starts, the OS ensures that the
programs are transferred into the available memory location in the Main memory from the backing
store, e.g. a disk.

 At any one given time, a number of tasks may require the memory so that they can be accessed &
processed by the computer. The computer memory is a scarce resource, and therefore, the OS
must determine which task will remain in memory awaiting for execution and which one will be
sent back to secondary storage to wait.

 The OS keeps track of what parts of memory are in use and by which program, and what parts are
free.

 The OS also handles the data files used by the programs that are being executed by the CPU.

 In addition, the OS ensures that storage space is provided for data generated by programs & during
data transfer operations such as, disk copying or printing.

3. Input/Output devices & ports management.

 Every computer has many Input & Output (I/O) devices. The OS controls the input from &
output to the various devices. It also tries to monitor the state of each I/O device and signals any
faults detected.

 During the course of their execution, programs will request the use of an Input or Output device.
In a multi-user system, conflicts are likely to occur when one program requests a device that is
being used by another program. Therefore, the OS will control allocation of I/O devices and
attempt to resolve any conflicts that arise.

 Because most input/output devices are slower than the processor, the OS has to control the flow of
data from the time of input to the time the user receives it as information. It ensures that the right
data reaches the processor at the right time.

 The OS also defines the various input/output ports found on the computer, e.g., printer port.

4. Management of secondary storage devices.

The OS manages the storage & retrieval of data on secondary storage devices. It also utilizes the free
space on hard disks to enhance the performance of the computer by temporarily holding tasks on it
that were in RAM ready for processing but have to wait for some time.

5. Management of communication devices & ports.

Communication refers to how the various devices and programs in & out of the computer system send
& receive messages from one another and from the processor.

The OS controls the communication process between the various tasks & the computer.
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To achieve external communication, an external device is usually connected to a communication port
using cables or wireless communication media.

6. File management.

The OS is concerned with the logical organization of the information (the File System) and provides
a means through which files can be sorted, retrieved & shared.

It also provides a means of protecting data files & programs against unauthorized access and
corruption.

7. Job scheduling.

The OS arranges & loads programs in order to provide a continuous sequence of processing & also
provide the appropriate responses to events.

The processor can handle only one task at a time. Therefore, in a situation where more than one
application program is occupying the main storage, the OS has to determine which task will be
processed first and ensures that the one that is currently being processed is closely monitored to avoid
wasting time in the processor.

The jobs are allocated priorities so as to ensure that there is continuous processing until all the jobs
within the memory are executed. This ensures that the CPU does not remain idle at any given
instance.

Some of the job scheduling functions include:

− Controlling the loading & running of programs.

− Communicating directly with users and/or the operator.
− Dealing with user commands to organize files and run programs.

NB: A Job is a group of tasks taken as a unit of work for a computer, e.g., one or more computer
programs, files, & instructions, to the operating system.

8. Job sequencing.

The OS keeps a list of jobs/tasks currently being run and monitors them as they move in & out of the
processor. It also arranges them in a particular order to make it easy for the processor to execute
them and to know how & when to fetch instructions & data for each task.

9. Resource control and allocation.

The OS controls the selection & operation of hardware devices used for input, output and storage.

The OS determines which task uses a particular resource and at what time. To do this, it gives each
resource a unique identification number called an Interrupt number so that, when two tasks request
to use a resource at the same time, the one with higher priority interrupt is granted control.
This prevents an undesirable situation called deadlock that occurs when a particular task holds a
needed resource & refuses to release it for use by other tasks.

10. Error reporting & correction routines.

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The OS has many ways of reporting to the user of any errors that occur during program execution. It
does this by monitoring the status of the computer system & performing error checks on both
hardware and software.

When the user makes an error, the OS through the Kernel determines the cause of the error, and prints
diagnostic messages on the screen suggesting appropriate routines of how the error can be corrected.
In case of a fatal error that cannot be corrected, the program will be suspended permanently. E.g., the
user program will prematurely terminate when it encounters an illegal operation, such as, dividing a
no. by 0 or if it attempts to read a data file that had not been opened.

11. Interrupt handling.

An Interrupt is a break from the normal sequential processing of instructions in a program.

Each hardware device communicates to the processor using a special number called the Interrupt
Request number (IRQ). Therefore, when an interrupt occurs, control is passed to the Kernel, which
determines the cause of the interrupt. The processor stops executing the current program to wait for
the corrective response of the user. Control is returned to the program that was interrupted once
corrective action has been taken.

Some causes of Interrupt.

i). An Interrupt caused by Power failure.

The Kernel saves vital information using the dying power supply so that it can be restarted
when power is returned.

ii). Arithmetic or logic errors.

When the ALU detects that an error has occurred, (e.g., the output may be requested to a non-
existent device) it generates a signal that causes an interrupt. Control is transferred to the
Kernel, which indicates the appropriate error correction routines.

iii). Hardware malfunction, e.g. parity errors.

The I/O control for each device & its associated hardware normally takes care of parity
checking. If a parity error is detected, the Kernel is notified by an interrupt.

Device driver - a software that the OS uses to control a specific piece of hardware.

12. Interfaces the user to the system’s hardware.

The OS provides quick means of communication between the computer user & its programs.

The user requests the services of the OS by use of commands & the OS communicates the messages
regarding the processing to the user through, either the screen or printer. Thus, a form of
‘conversation’ is established between the OS & the computer user.

13. Logging & accounting.

The OS keeps records (internal logs) on how the computer’s resources, e.g., CPU time, memory
usage, & the peripherals are being used. It also keeps a complete record of all that happens during
processing (usually in the form of a printed log).
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14. The OS protects hardware, software & data from improper use. They ensure that application
programs use the hardware in an efficient way.

Examples of operating systems:

 DOS (Disk Operating System).

 Windows operating system.
 MacOS (Macintosh).
 Unix.
 Linux.

Characteristics of an operating system.

An OS should have the following characteristics:

a). Reliable.

The OS should be at least as reliable as the hardware on which it runs. If a software or hardware
error occurs, the system should be able to detect the error and either try to correct the problem or try
to minimize the damage to the users of the system from the error.

b). Protected.

A user doesn’t want other users to interfere with him. Therefore, the system should protect users
from being affected both by errors of other users and by malicious attempts at tampering.

c). Efficient.

The OS is usually a complex program that uses a large part of the hardware resources for its own
functions. The resources consumed by the OS are not available for users.
Therefore, the system itself should be very efficient, & should manage user’s resources to minimize
their idle time.

d). Convenient.

Systems should be designed keeping users in mind.

Therefore, an OS should be flexible & convenient to use. In addition, in order to allow the sharing
of resources, the OS must be in complete control of the allocation of the computer resources.
e). Predictable.

User demands on the system are generally unpredictable. At the same time, users prefer to get
service that does not vary widely over extended periods of time. An estimate as to when the user
will get his input should be given.

Revision Questions

1. Name two major reasons why it became necessary to use an Operating system.
2. (a). Identify FOUR resources that the Operating system should manage.
(b). What function should the Operating system perform to manage each of the resources
above?
3. List and explain any five general functions of an operating system.
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4. What is meant by the term Job in computer studies?
5. Name four examples of operating systems.

CLASSIFICATION OF OPERATING SYSTEMS.

The OS determines determine the type of processing that a computer system is able to perform, since it
controls the allocation & use of the computer resources.

Operating systems can be classified according to:

1. Number of tasks that the system can perform concurrently.

• Single-tasking (program) operating system. Allows processing of one application program in the
main memory at a time.
• Multi-tasking operating system. Allows a single CPU to execute what appears to be more than one
application programs apparently at the same time.

2. Number of users the system can support at the same time.

• Single-user operating systems. Is designed for use by only one person.
• Multi-user operating systems. Allows more than one user to interactively use a computer.

3. Human Computer interface (i.e., how the user & the computer interact).
• Command line. Lets the user type a command at a command prompt window.
• Menu driven interface. Provides the user with a list of options to choose from.
• Graphical user interface (GUI). Provides the user with commands inform of Graphical objects
called icons and most commands are executed using a pointing device.

Classification according to tasks handled concurrently.

Single-tasking OS.

Single-tasking OS allows only one user-program in the main memory to be processed at a particular time.

This means that, the user can only run one interactive program at a time. The user must then exit from
the program before loading & running another program.

Example of a single user OS;

− MS-DOS.

Multi-tasking (Multiprogramming) OS.

A Multi-tasking OS allows a single CPU to execute/process more than one program, all of which are in
memory, at the same time.

Each program is allocated a time-slice. In this case, the programs take turns at short intervals of
processing time. The CPU switches its attention between programs as it receives requests for processing,
executing statements from one program, and then from another.

The programs to be run are loaded into the memory and the CPU begins execution of the first one. When
the request is satisfied, the second program is brought into memory and execution starts on the second
program, and so on.

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Note. In multi-programming, the computer is able to work on several programs at the same time. It
works on the programs on sequence, one after the other, and that at any given instant it executes
instructions from one program only. However, the computer works so quickly that it appears to be
executing the programs simultaneously.

Classification according to number of users.

Single-user OS.

A single-user OS is designed to be used by only one person. It allows only one user/person to operate the
machine at a time in an interactive, conversational mode, and runs only one user program at a time, e.g.
MS-DOS.

Multi-user (or multi access) OS.

A multi-user OS allows more than one user ( many people) to interactively use/access the computer at the
same time.

Examples;

− UNIX,
− Novell Netware,
− Ms-Windows 2000,
− Ms-Windows NT,
− Linux, etc

Classification according to Human Computer Interface (HCI).

The term Human Computer Interface (HCI) refers to the method of interaction between the computer &
the user, and determines how easily the user can operate the computer.

The HCI enables communication to & from between the user and the computer.

User-friendliness.

HCI is expected to be “user-friendly”, i.e., it should be one that the end-user finds helpful, and easy to
learn & use.

Features/characteristics of a user-friendly HCI.

i). It should be relatively easy for the user to try to start using the system.

ii). The system should be self-contained, so that the user is not forced into accessing manuals.

iii). The amount of effort & the information required for the user to get the system complete required
tasks should be minimal.

iv). The system should be robust & reliable, i.e., the user should be protected from unexpected system
actions, including system failures.

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v). The system should be able to adjust to different levels of expertise between users & also as users
grow in competence.

vi). The user should be made to feel in control of what is going on.

vii). The system should behave in a logical & consistent manner, enabling the user to reason about what
is going on and apply what has been learned.

Types of User interfaces.

There are different types of Human Computer Interfaces: -

1. Command driven interface.

2. Menu driven interface.
3. Graphical User Interface (GUI).

Command driven interface.

This is an interaction between the user & the computer that requires the use of commands

The user types a command at the prompt found on a command line. The computer then reads instructions
from the command line and executes them.

Example;

To copy a file called Fruits.Dat from Hard disk C to Floppy disk A using MS-DOS; type

C:\ >COPY Fruits.Dat A:\ (press the Enter key for the command to be executed).

Commands enable the user to quickly instruct the computer what to do.

Command-driven software is more flexible, but it is more difficult to learn. The user must know what
commands are available, what they do & how they should be typed. For this reason, commands are most
popular with experienced technical persons, such as computer Operators, Programmers or in situations
where the end-user continually works with the same program and has therefore mastered the commands.

To make commands more user-friendly, the following points need to be observed: -

1. The command words used should be descriptive VERBS that clearly convey the intended action, e.g.,
PRINT, COPY, RENAME, DELETE, etc.

2. Unique abbreviations should be provided for more experienced users, e.g., PRI, COP, REN, DEL,
CHKDSK, etc.

3. Multiple items on a single command line should ALWAYS be separated by blank spaces.

E.g., PRINT can be used in the following ways: -

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 PRINT Report1 – prints the named document on the default printer.

 PRINT Report1 Report2 Report3 – prints the three documents on the default printer.

Examples of Command line interfaces:

− MS-DOS,
− Early versions of PC-DOS, OS/2, and UNIX.

Disadvantages of using command driven interfaces

− They are more difficult to learn.

− The user must know the command to type.
− It is less user-friendly.
− It is not easy to use, i.e., one is required to master the command format/syntax.

Menu driven interface.

This type of interface provides the user with a list of program commands displayed on the screen to
choose from & a simple means of selecting between them.

To activate a choice in the menu, one can use the Enter key, or move the cursor until it is positioned at
the desired choice & then press the activation key so that the system can start acting upon the information
given.

This interface is suitable for beginners and infrequent users who may have difficulties in remembering
commands.

There are 2 types of menus: -

(a) Pull-down menus – are special types of menu used mostly in Windows.
(b) Pop-up menus & Pop-down menus. These menus are made to appear above or below an item on
the screen in order to elicit/obtain a choice from a user.

Later versions of DOS have a menu driven interface called the DOS Shell or DOS Editor.

Advantages of Menu driven interfaces

− Menus provide many options to select from.
− The user is presented with a choice and therefore, does not need to master any commands.
− They are easier to use.

Graphical User Interface (GUI).

This is an interaction between the user & computer that involves issuing of commands to the computer by
activating certain small graphic images displayed on the screen called Icons.

To issue a command, the icons can be selected using a pointing device like a Mouse.

GUI is mostly found on Workstations or PCs fitted with graphic adapters able to support high-resolution
graphics.
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Examples of GUI based OS;

− Presentation manager of OS/2,

− Ms-Windows,
− Linux,
− Apple Macintosh.

Features of a graphical user interface. (2 marks)

− Programs are represented graphically by use of Icons.
− Commands are selected and issued using pointing devices, e.g., Mouse, trackball.
− There is use of pull-down menus.
− Programs open by displaying windows.

Advantages of using GUI based OS

− They are user friendly.

− Easy to learn & use.

Revision Questions

1. What criteria are used to classify types of operating systems?

2. (a) Differentiate between multi-user and multitasking operating systems.
(b) State any computer software that can be classified as a Multi-user operating system.
3. Name three types of user interfaces employed by different commercial Operating systems.
4. (a) Differentiate between command-line interface and graphical user interface operating systems
based on the way commands are entered.
(b) State two main advantages of GUI interfaces.

Factors to consider when choosing an operating system.

The following factors should be considered when choosing an operating system for a computer;

1. Hardware configuration of the computer, e.g., RAM memory size, hard disk capacity, type of
processor, etc.

2. Basic design of the computer, - i.e., is it an IBM or IBM compatible, or an Apple computer?

3. Hardware compatibility.

4. User needs (requirements), i.e., the applications intended for the computer.

5. User friendliness or Human computer interface, i.e., is it Command line based, Menu-driven or a
Graphical user interface?

6. Availability in the market, e.g. Microsoft Windows based OS are very common.

7. Portability.

8. Cost – how expensive the OS is.

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9. Reliability, i.e., can it run without crashing or hanging (stop responding to commands).

10. The method of communication with the computer, e.g. the number of peripherals.
11. The method of operating the computer.

WINDOWS OPERATING SYSTEMS.

Windows operating system was developed as a Graphical User Interface (GUI) for PCs running on
MS-DOS.

It provides a friendly interface that allows the users to enter commands by pointing and clicking at
objects that appear on the screen using a pointing device, e.g., a Mouse or a trackball. These graphical
capabilities make a program easier to use.

Microsoft Windows takes its name from the on-screen “Window” that it uses to display information.

 A Window is a rectangular portion/ area of the screen that Windows sets aside for a specific task.
 A Window is a rectangular area on a display screen in which text and graphical images may be
displayed.

Examples of Windows operating systems:

− Microsoft Windows 95, 98, 2000,7,8,10, Professional, 2003, NT, Millennium (Me), XP, and Vista.
− Linux,
− UNIX,
− MacOS.
− OS/2.

Common features of Windows operating systems:-

1). They all have similar user-interfaces. For example;

• Windows.
• Pointing device – a device such as a mouse or trackball that enables the user to select objects on the
display screen.
• Pointer – a symbol (arrow) that appears on the display screen, and can be used to select objects &
commands.
• Icons – small graphical pictures that represent commands, files, or applications. By moving the
pointer to the icon and pressing a mouse button, one can execute a command or convert the icon
into a window.

• Buttons – items used to initiate a process in an application.

• Menus – they provide choices that let the user execute commands by selecting them.
• Desktop – this is the area on the display screen where icons are grouped.

2). It is user-friendly. Windows is menu driven, hence easy to operate, because the options used in
particular applications are usually displayed on the screen in form of Icons.

3). All Windows operating system support multiple users & have the ability to Multi-task, i.e., they allow
one to run more than one program at the same time, each in its own window.

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4). It is easy to exchange information between Windows applications, i.e., it is easy to transfer or copy
information from one program to another.

5). All Windows applications share a common set of commands. For example, Open, Save, Print, etc &
therefore, you don’t need to learn a different set of commands for each application.

6). Ability to handle long file names, e.g., Windows 95 and later versions accept file names of up to 255
characters including spaces.

7). Most Windows operating systems have Plug and play (PnP) features. They automatically accept a
new hardware once it is connected to the computer.

Advantages of Windows Operating Systems.

i). It is easy to open programs, find documents, and switch between programs.

ii). Windows provide facilities such as the Windows Explorer, which enable one to browse through &
manage you files, folders, and drives easily.

iii). Windows can support long file names, making it easier to find and organize files.

iv). Windows has improved Video, CD & sound capabilities, and can fully support MS-DOS-based
games.

v). Windows makes it easier to install new hardware devices onto the system. It is able to recognize
and sets up a certain Plug-and-Play hardware whose card has been inserted in the computer
automatically.

vi). Windows allows true Multitasking, i.e. it allows the user to run more than one (several) program at
the same time, each in its own window.

vii). Windows is user-friendly, i.e., it is menu driven, hence easy to operate, because the options used in
particular programs are usually displayed on the screen in form icons.

viii). Windows supports a wide choice of networks & transmission protocols. It also has facilities for
sharing files & devices.

ix). Windows has facilities that allow people to work with all types of electronic communications, e.g.,
it allows people to send text messages, transfer files, and also hold digital live face-to-face
conversations with family friends & business associates around the world.

x). Windows includes My Briefcase, a file synchronization tool & a utility for transferring files over a
direct cable link or dial-up networking.

xi). All Windows applications share a common set of commands. E.g., Open, Save, Print, etc &
therefore, there is no need to learn a different set of commands for each application.

xii). Windows allows movement of text or items from one program to another. i.e., it is easy to
exchange information between Windows applications.

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xiii). Windows has facilities that enable the computer to save power resources by putting the computer
on standby or hibernation.

xiv). Windows includes a Help system that makes your computer easier to use. It helps you find answers
to your questions easily, or get up-to date technical support from the WWW.

Differences between Ms-Windows & Disk Operating System.

Ms-Windows MS-DOS
1. There are icons 1. No Icons
2. Uses both the Mouse & Keyboard as Input 2. Only the Keyboard is used as Input device.
devices.
3. There is use of Menus. 3. It is command-based.
4. User-friendly. 4. Not user-friendly.
5. Windows fully supports networking. 5. DOS cannot support networking.
6. Requires a computer with high memory size. 6. Uses less memory compared to Windows.
7. Windows can support DOS, i.e. it is possible to 7. DOS cannot support Windows, i.e. it is not
run DOS-based programs in Windows. possible to run Window-based programs in MS-
DOS.
8. Uses Multi-coloured screen. 8. Uses monochrome (1 coloured) screen.
9. It is a Multi-user OS. 9. It is a single-user OS.
10. It is a multi-tasking OS, i.e. can support more 10. It is a single-tasking OS, i.e. can only support one
than 1 program at a time. program at a time.
11. Comes in different versions. 11. MS-DOS is an operating system by itself.
12. Uses folders for storage of files. 12. Uses Directories to organize files.

MB Most operating systems organise information in a three-tier hierarchy:

• Drives
• Folders and subfolders
• Files.
The figure below shows how an operating system organises information on a hard disk (Drive C:)

Figure above shows Information organization tree/ directory structure.

➢ A file is a collection of related data given a unique name for ease of access, manipulation and storage.
Every file has the following details
• A unique name and an optional extension.
• The size, date and time the file was created or modified.
Types of files
• System files – Contain information that is critical for the operation of the computer.
• Application files – Holds programs and are executable.
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• Date files. Contains user specific data
The table below shows some file extensions
Extension File Type Description
.doc Data A Microsoft word document file
.txt Data A plain text file created using
note pad or DOS editor
.tif Data A graphic file created using
application such as Adobe
Photoshop
.exe Application file The file that launches a particular
application eg Winword.exe, PM
70.exe
.bat System file File containing a series of
commands loaded during boot up
.sys System file System files that perform
fundamental operations

➢ A folder also knows as a directory in some operating system, is a named storage location where
related files can be stored.
➢ Formatting is the process of preparing a new disk for use by imprinting empty sector and tracks on the surface
of the disk so that the operating system can recognize and make it accessible.
➢ Disk scanning Checking and repairing minor drive problems such as lost storage location or damaged surfaces.
➢ Defragmentation Bring scattered files together.
➢ Backing up data. Creating copies of data and programs on separate storage devices.
➢ Partitioning a disk. Refers to the process of dividing a large physical disk into two separate drive and is
assigned a drive letter.
Review Questions

1. Give FOUR advantages of which Windows based Operating system software has over Disk Operating
System software.
2. (a). List Four types of Windows versions.
(b). Why is Windows termed as a friendly Operating system?
3. List four key features of the Windows Operating environment.

INTERNET AND E-MAIL

Definitions of Internet and Intranet

Internet: Global interconnection of computer networks for the purpose of communication and
resource sharing.
This is an interconnection of many large computer networks to enable different computers
worldwide to communicate.
Intranet: Interconnection of computers within an organization to form a network.

Internet Connectivity Requirements

✓ Data terminal equipment: Are devices used to process, host and transmit data on a networks e.g. a
laptop, mobile phones, Personal Digital Assistant (PDA).
✓ Transmission media: physical (wired) or wireless pathway used to transmit data and information
form one point to another. Examples:
i. Telecommunication lines: fiber optic cables.

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ii. Wireless telecommunications like the GSM use GPRS.
iii. Satellite transmission
✓ Internet Service Providers (ISPs): Companies that offer internet services to end users.
✓ Software: Help to facilitate you access to the internet- Eg
i. Internet Protocol. These are set of rules that govern how two computers can send and receive data on
the network. examples Internet protocol (IP) and Transmission control protocol (TCP)
ii. Browser. This is a program that lets the user surf or browse the internet examples (Mozilla, Opera,
Internet Explorer)
iii. Email software. This is a software that enables the user to receive, compose and send e-mails example
(Ms-Outlook, Express, Eudora, Yahoo Mail, Gmail e.t.c)
✓ Modem: Special digital to analog interface card that is changes digital data to analog so as to be
transmitted and on receiving end the data is changed from analog to digital form for computer to
understand

Protocols
A set of rules that governs how two computers can send and receive data on the network. Types of
protocols are:
• Transmission Control Protocol (TCP): Governs how data is transferred from one
computer to the next.
• Internet Protocol (IP): Determines the addressing system on the internet.

Types of Internet Connection

1. Analog:ISP ancholes.
2. Integrated Service Digital Network (ISDN): Dial up faster than analog.
3. Broadband/ Asymmetrical Digital Subscriber Line (ADSL)/ Symmetrical Digital Subscriber Line
(SDSL): Faster than dial up.

Internet Architecture

Internet Services / Uses of internet

1. E-mail: Electronic exchange of letters, data and graphics on the internet.
2. E-learning: Learning through interacting with special programs on the computer.
3. E-commerce: Buying and selling of goods and services on the internet.
4. Video conferencing: Use of computer, digital camera and audio capturing equipment and
communication network to enable people in different locations to talk to one another.
5. Instant messaging: Allow two or more people communicate directly e.g. Yahoo! Messenger,
Google talk, IzzyTalk.
6. News group
7. Searching: Google, Opera Mini, Yahoo, Excite, Alta Vista.
8. World Wide Web (www): Vast virtual space on internet where information pages called websites
is installed.
• Website: Group of related web pages or other resources located on a web server.
• Web portal: It offers specialized services like search, email, sports updates, financial
news and links to selected websites.
• Blog: Website containing information that can be easily updated. It acts as resume
diary and may be used for business, advocacy and campaigns.
• Multimedia: contains photos, movies, music, web TV, and internet radio.

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Terms used in accessing the internet

1. Uniform Resource Locater (URL): Address given to every resource on the internet which
specifies the files or data and its location.
2. Log in: Accessing an existing account though keying correct username and password
3. Sign up: Creating new account through the internet.
4. Surf/ browser: Process of accessing internet resources.
5. Hyperlinks: Text or picture on an electronic document especially web pages that cause other
web pages to open when link is clicked.
6. Search engine: program that searches document for specified keywords and returns a list of
document where keywords are found. Eg Google and Yahoo search engine.
7. Downloading: Process of transferring information from host computer network to the local
storage.
8. Uploading: Process of transferring information from a local storage to a remote computer on
network.
9. Computer Network: Linking two or more computers for the purpose of communication and
resource sharing.
This is a collection of independent entities that are arranged in such a
manner so as to exchange data, information or resources all
interconnected with a computer.
E-MAIL
E-mail Facilities
1. Mails
• Checking
• Compose
• Send
• Forward
2. File attachment
3. Online meeting
4. Telephone messaging
5. Contact management

Advantages of Emails over Letters

• They are cheaper per individual message
• They are faster
• One can attach any kind of file
• More safer than a letter

Precautions when setting an email system

• Install, use and regularly update antivirus software to reduce virus infection.
• Have a mail filtering system to track unsolicited mails.
• Install firewalls to block unauthorized internet traffic. Use passwords to allow only
authorized users.

Email Address Parts

Example: [email protected]
• Joses- Username
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• @- Separates username from host
• yahoo- Host computer on network
• .com- Identifies the type institution or domain.

Web Address Parts

Example: http://www.patriconnections.com
• http- protocol that transfers hypertext.
• www- Internet (web) server
• patriconnections - Domain
• com – type of institution or domain.

DATA SECURITY AND CONTROLS

Data and Information Security involves

✓ Protection of data and information against unauthorized access.
✓ Denial of data and information to unauthorized access.
✓ Provision of data and information to authorized users.

Data Security Core Principles (CIA)

1. Confidentiality
2. Integrity
3. Availability

Security Threats and Control Measures

1. Virus
Destructive program that installs itself in the computer
Types of Viruses
1. Boot sector virus: It destroys the booting information on storage devices.
2. File viruses: It attaches themselves to files.
3. Hoax viruses: Come as email with attractive messages and launch themselves when email is
opened.
4. Trojan horse: It performs undesirable activities in the background.
5. Worms: This is a malicious program that self-replicates hence clogs the system memory and
storage media.
6. Backdoors: Trojan/ worm that allow hidden access to computer files.
Sources of Viruses
• Contacts with contaminated system
• Pirated software
• Infected proprietary software
• Freeware and shareware
• Updates of software distributed
Symptoms of viruses
• Quizzical messages appearing on the screen
• Unfamiliar graphics
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• Keys on keyboard changing
• Program taking longer to load
• File access taking longer to load
• Less memory available is unusual
• File programs disappearing mysteriously.
• Disk access seem extensive for simple tasks
Control Measures against viruses
• Install the latest version of antivirus
• Always scan removable storage media for viruses before using them.
• Scanning mails before opening

2. Unauthorized Access
Types
1. Eavesdropping: Tapping into communication channels to get information.
2. Surveillance: Refers to monitoring use of computer system and networks using background
programs such as spyware and cookies in order to gather information and use it for illegal purpose
3. Industrial Espionage: Spying to get information to use it to counter or finish another
computer/competitor.
Control Measures against Unauthorized Access
• Data encryption during transmission
• Reinforce check access points
• Enforce network security measures
• Keep the computer room closed when nobody is using it
• Fingerprint identification strategies

3. Computer Error and Accidental Access

Occur as a result of people experimenting with features which they’re not familiar with or make a
mistake by printing sensitive reports and unsuspecting give them to unauthorized person.
Control Measures
• Give various file access privileges
• Set up comprehensive error recovery strategy in the organization

4. Physical Theft
Control measures
• Employ guards
• Burglar proofing
• Reinforce weak access points
• Install backup storages preferably out of the computer room

5. Computer Crimes
1. Trespass: Gaining access to information without permission.
2. Cracking: Guess work till one discovers weakness in security inorder to gain unauthorized access
for malicious reasons.
3. Hacking: Intentional breaking of codes and passwords to gain access just for fun.
4. Tapping: Sending an intelligent program to the host computer to get information.
5. Piracy: Making illegal copies of copyrighted software.

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6. Fraud: Use of computers to cheat people with the intention of gaining money or information.
7. Sabotage: Illegal destruction of data and information with the aim of crippling service delivery or
causing great loss to an organization.
8. Alteration: Illegal changing of data and information without permission with the aim of gaining or
misinforming the authorized users.
9. Phishing. This a method used by scammers to collect personal information from unsuspecting
users. The false emails often look surprisingly legitimate and even the web pages where you are
asked to enter your information may look real.

Control measures against piracy

• Make software cheap enough to increase affordability.
• User license and certificates to identify originals.
• Set installation passwords to deter illegal installation.

Detection and Protection against Computer Crimes

a) Audit trial: Careful study of an information system in order to establish or find out all
weakness in the system that could lead to security threats and weak access points.
b) Data encryption: Transforming data in a way that only the sender and receiver can
understand.
c) Log files: Special system files that keep records of events on the use of the computer and
resources in the information system.
d) Firewalls: Software that filters data and information exchanged between different
networks by enforcing the host network access control policy.

Rules in selection of a good password

• A good password should be at least six characters long, including both letters and numbers.
• It should not be easy for somebody to know.
• It should be easy to remember.

6. Information system failure

Reason for Information System failure
1. Hardware failure due to improper use.
2. Unstable power supply as a result of brownout or blackout and vandalism
3. Network breakdown
4. Natural disasters like floods, etc.
5. Program failure or crash

Difficulties in detection and prevention of computer crimes

• Crime right be complex
• It’s not easy to find clear trail of evidence leading to the guilty party e.g. no fingerprints.
• There are no witnesses.
• Few people in management and law enforcement know enough about to prevent crimes.

Causes of Data Loss

• Attack by malicious programs like viruses
• Data manipulation- alteration and deleting ( sabotage)
• Piracy: illegal copying of copyright protected data and information

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Data Protection Measures

✓ Encryption
✓ Enforcing data and information access control policies on all employees and outsides
✓ Reinforce computer room security
✓ Assign user accounts in a networked environment
✓ Install firewalls: They act as security buffers or wall between private network and other networks
✓ Install security and antivirus software, which should be updated regularly to protect the computer
against malicious programs.
✓ Put in place disaster recovery plan
✓ Avoid downloading programs, games, screen savers and themes you are not sure of
✓ Enable write protection on removable disks.
✓ Protect the computer against brownouts or blackouts which may cause physical damage or data
loss by using surge protectors and UPS.

Concerns related to collection and use of private and confidential data are:
✓ Spreading information without the owners consent or awareness
✓ Spreading inaccurate information
✓ Eavesdropping and taping of information from a communication line
✓ Secretly recording and reporting user activities by using normal recording devices, spyware and
copiers

Laws governing Piracy and Confidentiality

1. No secret databases e.g. in government or private organizations
2. Right to individual access
3. Right of consent- information for one purpose cannot be used for other purpose without owners
consent.
4. Right to correct- individual corrects or amends records of his or her information.
5. Assurance of reliability and proper use- Data must be reliable.

Laws governing protection of Information

1. Data and information should be kept secure against loss or exposure.
2. Data and information should not be longer than necessary.
3. Data and information should be accurate and up to date.
4. Data and information should not be transferred to other counties without owners’ permission.
5. Data and information should be collected and kept for specified lawful process.

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WORD PROCESSING

Definition
This is the creation of long document, reports, memos etc.
Main types of Word Processors
1. Dedicated: This word processor is the only program in the computer.
2. Non-dedicated: the word processor is among other programs installed in that computer.

Terms in Word Processing

Word wrap: This is the way the word processor detects whether the last word on a certain line
will fit if not the whole word is pushed to the beginning of the next line.

Hyphenation: The way the word processor detects if the last word on a certain line will fit if
not it adds hyphenation after the first words then part of word in argument is pushed at the
beginning of the next line.

Justification: Position of line according to the centre of the page, left and the right margin.
There are for ways
• Full: All lines in a paragraph start at the same point and end at the same point.
• Left: All lines in a paragraph start at the same point but end at different point.
• Right: All lines in a paragraph start at different points but end at the same point.
• Centre: All lines in a paragraph are centered along the page.

Indentation: Way lines(s) start and end from the normal starting or ending point by the use of
Tab key indent tools from format command in the main menu. Ways of indenting;
• Indenting a paragraph from the left margin
• Indenting the first line of a paragraph from the left margin
• Hanging indent
• Indenting a paragraph from the right margin
• Indenting from both margins

Bolding: Increasing the intensity of text such that when printed it appears darker than normal text.

Blocking: Separating part of text by highlighting so that any issued command affects the
highlighted text.

Orphan: The last line in the last paragraph of a page that becomes the first line on the next page
after the first page is filled up.

Widow: First line in the last paragraph of a page that becomes the last line on that page while
the other part is moved to the next page after the first page is filled up.

Superscript: Character above the normal typing line.

Subscript: Character below the normal typing line.

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Header: Text/ message appearing on top of each page of a document.

Footer: Text/ message appearing at the bottom of each page of a document.

Pagination: Default page numbering that the word processor provides.

Repagination: Situation where the default page numbering is altered by the user.

Softcopy: Document that is in computer memory or the screen where changes are applicable.

Hardcopy: Document that is already printed.

Soft return: Situation where the cursor automatically moves to the next line before it reaches
the end of the current line.

Hard return: Situation where the user forces the cursor to move to the beginning of the next
new line by pressing the enter key on the keyboard before it reaches the end of the current line.

Soft page: Automatic page ending as per the settings that comes when one page is filled up.

Hard page: Forced page ending before the current page is filled up.

Continuous stationery: Situation where the printer uses rolls of papers therefore one does not
need to keep on inserting a paper after the other.

Preprinted stationery: One needs to insert a paper after the other is printed.

Toggle switch: How word processor behaves depending whether certain keys are on or off like
Insert and the Caps Lock keys.

Margin: Blank space around the edges of a page.

Boarder: Printable edges around the page.

Paper Orientation
Portrait
Landscape

Difference between Elements and Features

Features: Inbuilt facilities that can be activated on text.
Elements: Physical components that can be viewed on the screen.

Features of a word processor

1. Enables one to create a file and save it again for retrieval, editing and formatting.
2. Have spell checker, thesaurus and grammar checkers.
3. Provides headers and footers, indexing, footnotes
4. Ability to create and import text and graphics from other applications

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Advantages of Word Processor
1. It is faster to create a document because of the availability of facilities like formatting and editing
features.
2. Enables the users to proofread and spell check the document on the screen before printing.
3. It allows multiple copies printing unlike the typewriters.
4. Enables the user to store the document for future editing/ reference if need be.
5. Has a superior document formatting features.

Mail merging Document

The process of generating personalized letters or documents by combing a main document with an
existing document. Files involved in mail merging:
1. Primary file: Contains data that is to appear on all the letters after combining.
2. Secondary file: Content to appear in all the letters.
3. Merged file: Combined primary and secondary document.

Ways of Mail Merging

• Previewing merged document
• Merging to a printer
• Merging to a new document
• Sending merged document via email or fax

Editing a Document
Deleting text
There are many ways to accomplish this operation
• Highlighting the text then right click the highlighted text and
choose delete or press delete key.
• Backspace Key: Deletes text on the left side of the cursor
position. Delete key: Deletes text on the right side
of the cursor position.
Find and replace: Fast way to search for a word in the document and if necessary replacing it
with another word.
Spelling and grammar: Press F7 or go to Spell checker to correct wrongly spelled words and
incorrect grammar
Thesaurus: Used to search for words with similar meaning (synonyms) or with opposite meaning
(antonyms).
Autocorrect and autotext: Autocorrect automatically corrects wrongly spelled word during
data entry while autotext completes words when the user types in the first letters of a word.
Undo and Redo: Undo (CTRL+Z) automatically cancels the last action done by the user while
Redo (CTRL+Y) automatically reverses the last command or action undone by the user.

Formatting Document
Text Formatting
Changing the font type, size and colour
Changing the case
• Uppercase: automatically changes the highlighted text into capital letters.
• Lowercase: automatically changes the highlighted text into small letters.
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• Sentence case: automatically makes the fast letter of a sentence to a capital letter.
• Toggle case: automatically changes capitalized letters to small letters and vice versa.
Superscript and subscript
Press (CTRL+SHIFT++) for superscript option or (CTRL+=) for subscript option.

Paragraph Formatting
Alignment or Justification
• Full: All lines in a paragraph start at the same point and end at the same point.
• Left: All lines in a paragraph start at the same point but end at different point.
• Right: All lines in a paragraph start at different points but end at the same point.
• Centres: All lines in a paragraph are centered along the page. Line spacing
Tab setting and Indents
• Indenting a paragraph from the left margin
• Indenting the first line of a paragraph from the left margin
• Hanging indent
• Indenting a paragraph from the right margin
• Indenting from both margins
Drop cap: Formatting the first letter of a paragraph to appear bigger and occupy several lines.
Bullet and numbering
Column
Page and column breaks
Formatting the entire document
Page setup
Page numbering
Headers and footers
Footnotes and endnotes
.

SPREADSHEET

Definition
An essentially large sheet that lets you enter, edit and manipulate numerical data.

Types of Spreadsheet
Manual
Electronic

Examples of Spreadsheet
Lotus 123 VisiCalc
MS-Excel
VP Planner

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Advantages of Electronic over manual spreadsheet
1. It utilizes powerful aspects of the computer like: speed, accuracy and efficiency to enable the user
accomplish the task.
2. It offers a large virtual sheet for data entry and manipulation.
3. It utilizes large storage space on computer storage devices to store and retrieve documents.
4. Enables the user to produce neat work because traditional paper, pencil, rubber and calculator are
not required
5. Has a better document formatting capabilities.
6. Has inbuilt formulas called functions that enables the user to quickly manipulate mathematical
data.
7. Automatically adjusts the results of a formula if the data in the worksheet is changed- Automatic
recalculation.

Components of a Spreadsheet
1. Worksheet: where data is entered. It consists of cells, columns and rows.
2. Database: Does the actual management of data e.g. filtering records, using forms, calculating
subtotals, data validation, pivot tables, pivot charts and reports.
3. Graph and charts: Pictorial representation of the base data in a worksheet.

Types of charts
Line, bar, column, pie, scattered, histogram,
Legend: A key that explain what each colour or pattern of data representation in a chart means.

Application Areas of Spreadsheet

1. Statistical analysis
2. Accounting: Recording daily transactions and keeping of financial records.
Also in; 3. Track the value of assets overtime (Depreciation and
Appreciation).
4. Calculate profits 5.
Prepare budgets.
6. Data management: Sorting, filtering data, calculating subtotals, and using forms.
7. Forecasting/ What if analysis: Changing values of a cell or argument in a formula to see
the difference the change would make to the calculation results.

Worksheet Layout
✓ Cell: Intersection between a row and column.
✓ Rows: Horizontal arrangement of cells.
✓ Columns: Vertical arrangement of cells.
✓ Range: A group of rectangular cells that can be manipulated as a block.

Cell Data Types

1. Label: Any text or alphanumeric characters entered in a cell.
2. Values: Numbers that can be manipulated automatically.
3. Formula: Designed mathematical expression that create a relationship cell and return a value
in a chosen cell.

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4. Functions: Inbuilt predefined formula that the user can quickly use instead of creating new
one each time a calculation has to be carried out.

Cell Referencing
Identifies a cell or range of cells on the worksheet and shows MS-Excel where to look for the
values or data needed to be used in a formula.
1. Relative cell referencing: The formula keeps on changing automatically depending on
the position on the worksheet.
2. Absolute: Cell reference that is always referring to a cell in a specified location of the
worksheet even if they are copied from one cell to another.
✓ A1 referencing style: A cell can be identified by its column label followed by the
row number.
✓ R1CI referencing style: A cell is referred by its row number followed by its column
number.

A1 style R1C1
B2 R2C2
C2 R10C3
E20 R20C5

Data Management
1. Sorting
2. Filtering data: Quick and efficient method of finding and working with a subset of data
in a list. 3. Auto filter: Uses simple criteria and include filter by selection
4. Advanced filter: Uses more complex criteria.
5. Subtotal
6. Total function
7. Forms: Special prepared templates that the user can use to make data entry fast.

Basic Functions and Formulas

Statistical Functions
1. Average: Returns the average or mean of a certain formula which can be numbers or array.
2. Count: Counts the number of cells that contain values.
3. Max: Returns the largest value in a set of values.
4. Min: Returns the smallest value in a set of values.
5. Mode: Returns the most frequent occurring value in a set of values.
6. Rank: Returns the rank of a number in a list by comparing its size in relation to the others.

Logical Functions
1. If: Returns a specified value if a condition is executed and found to be true and another
value if it is false.
2. Count if: Counts a number of cells within a specified range that meet the given
condition of criteria. Example A10:E10 contain eggs, in cell 6, 5 and 2 =COUNTIF
(A10:E10,”eggs”) will return 3.
3. Sum If: Adds values in the specified cells by giving a condition or criteria. Example
A10:E10 contain 10, 50, 60, 30, 70 sum all values greater than 50 =SUMIF
(A10:E10,”50”) returns 180.

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Mathematical Functions
1. Sum: Adds values in a range of cells as specified and returns the result in a specified cell.
2. Product: Multiplies values in a range of cells as specifies and returns result in a specified cell.

Order of Execution
Operator Name Precedence
- Negative as in -1 1
% Percentage 2
^ Exponential 3
*and/ Multiplication and 4
Division
+and - Addition and Subtraction 5
=,<>,<,>,<=,=> Relation 6

DATABASES

Definition of Database
Collection of structured and related data items organized to produce a consistent and controlled
access to the items.

Challenges facing human way of managing databases (Manual)

1. Unnecessary duplication of data.
2. Burning and time wasting when searching for an item.
3. Misleading reports due to poor data entry and organization.
4. Poor update of records.

Functions of Database Management System

1. Enables users to add or delete records.
2. Enables users to update or modify records.
3. Allows user to organize data for easy access, retrieval and manipulation.
4. Acts as an interface between database and other application programs.
5. Ensures security of data by safeguarding it against unauthorized access.
6. Keeps statistics of data items in a database.
NB: Database Management Software (DBMS) facilitates the creation, organizing and management of
databases.

Components of a Database System

1. Hardware: Storage disks, tapes and other associated devices like the CPU.
2. Data: Values physically recorded.
3. Software:
• Data definition: Method of data definition and storage.

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• Data maintenance: Checks data in the fields.
• Data manipulation: Inserting, updating and sorting data.
• Data display: Viewing data.
• Data integrity: Accuracy or completeness of data and information in a computer or
received from an information system.

4. User:
a) Application programmer: Write programs that use databases.
b) End users: Interact with the database from a terminal.
c) Database administrator: Functions
• Overall in charge of the system
• Determine the information content of a database
• Define unauthorized checks and validation procedures
• Monitor performance and respond to changes in user requirement
• Define a strategy for backup strategy

Advantages of Computerized Databases

1. Reduces redundancy through the integration of files that have something in common.
2. Avoids inconsistency by safeguarding item duplication.
3. Data can be shared- data requirement can be satisfied even without necessary creation of a new
file.
4. Offers security by restricting unauthorized access.
5. Data integrity is maintained- the accuracy of data.
6. Data independence: the immunity of the application to changes in storage and access strategy.

Database Models
1. Flat files: They hold only one set of data and is not any different from the manual files.
Example is the library catalog.
2. Hierarchical models: Arranged in hierarchical (text) form i.e. To access level two data
one has to first access level one data items.
3. Networking models: Links or paths are used to express the relation between different data
items forming a network of items.
4. Relational model: Related data items are stored together in structures called relations or
tables. Relationships created between records of different tables.
5. Object Oriented Model: Database is a complete program built to hold a collection of
objects which have both properties and behavior.

Features of Database Management System

1. Tables: Hold related records.
2. Queries: A database tool used to search or question the database on specific data items. Types of
queries-
• Select query- Used to search and analyze data in one or more tables.
• Action query- Used to make changes to many records once. Task-
a) Update: updates data in a table
b) Append: adds data in a table from one or more tables.
c) Make table: Creates a new table from a dynaset.

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d) Delete: Deletes specified records from one or more tables.
3. Forms: Enables users to view and enter data in a table.
4. Reports: Provides users with means to specify output layout and what is to be printed.
5. Macros: A set of procedure to automatic frequently performed tasks.
6. Programming module: A powerful tool than macros to automate the database operations further.

Data Organization in a Database

• Fields: Character or logical combination of characters.
• Records: Collection of related fields that represent a single entity.
• Tables: A collection of related records.
• Database: Highest in data records.

Field Data Types

• Text: Alphanumeric letters, numbers, space and functions.
• Number: Numeric numbers can be manipulated mathematically.
• Memo: Made of alphanumeric data up to 64000 characters.
• Date/ Time: Identify a field as either a date or time.
• Currency: Identify numeric values that are in decimal or fraction.
• Auto number: Numeric value u wish MS-Access to automatically increment values in a field.
• Yes/ No: Logical field where entry is either a yes or no using a check box.
• Object Linking and Embedding (OLE): Used for graphical interface applications for
inserting graphical objects.

Field Properties
1. Field size: Allows user to set the number of characters in a field.
2. Format: Determines how information appears on screen and when printed.
3. Decimal places: Used for number or currency fields, and to specify the number of decimal
places.
4. Input Mask: Automatically formats field entry into specified format.
5. Caption: A more descriptive name for a field to be used in a table.
6. Default value: A value that will automatically appear in datasheet if nothing is entered.
7. Validation rule: Logical expression that restricts the value to be entered in a field.
8. Validation text: Message that appears when the validation rule is violated.
9. Required: Determines if an entry must be made in a field before you proceed to the next
field.
10. Allow zero length: Allows the users to proceed without making any entry in fields set as zero
length.
11. Indexed: Facilitates the organization of records for easy search.
12. Primary key: Enforces uniqueness in a table so that one record isn’t entered twice.
13. Index: Used to speed up search and sort operations in a table.
14. Foreign Key: A key in a child table which is a primary key in a parent table.

Ways of Protecting Information System from Unauthorized Access

• Use of passwords
• User and group permission
• Data encryption
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• User level security

Data integrity Constrains

Rules governing entering, changing and deletion of data and records in a database.
1. Entity integrity: Rules governing the composition of primary key.
✓ Cannot contain a null value, it must be unique- No zero length
✓ No duplicate- indexed
✓ Input mask
✓ Caption
2. Referential integrity: Governs the nature of records in a one to many relationship between tables
in the database.
-All foreign keys in child tables must have a matching field in a parent table.
a) Restricted database- the system deletes or updates a parent record if there are no
matching records. A parent record has a primary key and a child record has a foreign
key of the relationship in the second table.
b) Cascades database- deletes or updates all matching child records when the parent
record is deleted or updated.
3. Domain integrity: Ensures no field takes on a value outside the range of valid values.
• Format
• Validation rule
• Validation text
• Indexed

Terms used in Database

1. Normalization: This is the process of dividing information into independent tables to
avoid repletion of data entries.
2. Query language: Special language used to write query statements.
3. Data redundancy: duplication of data.
4. Data inconsistency: When one piece of information in a record doesn’t concur with the
other piece in a different file.

Types of Controls used in Database

1. Bound Control: One whose source of data is a field in a table or a query.
2. Unbound Control: A control that is not connected to any data source.

Query Criteria
• Relational operations: >, <, <=, >=, <>, and =.
• Wildcards: *(asterisk) and #.
• Logical operators: AND, OR and NOT.
• LIKE and BETWEEN: relate or display values within a range.

Considerations for a Database Relationship

• Field of similar data types
• Field content
• Primary key

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DATA PROCESSING

Definition
This is the process of transforming data into a meaningful output i.e. information.
Data Processing Cycle
Data Collection

Data Output Data Input

Processing

Data collection/ Information gathering/ Fact Finding

Methods involved in data collection are; interviews, questionnaires, observation or direct data capture.
Stages involved
i. Data creation: the process of putting together facts in an organized
format.
ii. Data transmission: converting the collected data to something
meaningful.
iii. Data preparation: conversion of data from source document to machine
readable form.
iv. Media conversion:
v. Input validation: check and remove errors
vi. Sorting: arranging data in an organized format.
Data Input
This is the process where the collected data is converted from human readable form to machine
readable form.
Data Processing
This is the actual transformation of input data by the control processing unit (CPU) to a more
meaningful output or information.
Data Output
This is the final activity of data processing cycle which produces the information.
Ways of data dissemination
▪ Electronic presentation over media or television
▪ Distribution of hard copies
▪ Broadcasting the message over the internet
▪ Mobile phones

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Description of Errors in Data Processing
Types of Data Processing Errors
i. Transcription errors
Errors that are made during data entry. Types of transcription errors are;
a) Misreading errors-Occur as a result of incorrect reading of source document by the
user like typing S instead of 5.
b) Transposition errors- Occurs as a result of incorrect arrangement of characters or
incorrect order of characters. Example, instead of typing 567, typing 576.
ii. Computational errors
Result from an arithmetic operation that doesn’t produce the required output. Types;
a) Overflow errors- Occur from a calculation that is too large to be stored in allocated
memory space.
b) Truncation errors- result from real number that has a long fractional part which cannot
fit in the allocated memory. Example 0.75535322 0.755 (truncated to four
digits)
c) Rounding errors- from raising or lowering a digit in a real number to the required
rounded number. Example 7.56 7.6
iii. Algorithm or Logical errors
Result from logarithmic design.

Data Integrity
The accuracy and completeness of data intended in a computer or received from the information
system. Data integrity is determined by;
1. Accuracy: whether the data is true or false.
2. Timeliness: This relays the availability of data in time or whether it is already outdated.
3. Relevance: Consider whether the expected output meets the processing cycle
requirements, the daily operations and the decision making.
4. Audibility (Verifiability): Ability of the user to check the accuracy and completeness of
information.
Minimizing threats to data integrity
▪ Using error detection and correction software when transmitting data.
▪ Using devices that capture data directly from source e.g. cameras
▪ Controlling the access to data by enforcing security measures.
▪ Back-up data preferably on external storage media.
▪ Design user interface that minimize chances of invalid data entry.

Data Processing Methods

1. Manual data processing use of devices like pen and a paper to process data.
2. Mechanical data processing use of mechanical devices like a typewriter
3. Electronic data processing use of electronic devices like a computer.
Factors determining the Methods of Data Processing
▪ Size and type of business
▪ Timing aspects
▪ Link between applications

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Computer Files
Definition: A collection of related records that give a complete set of information about a certain
data item.
Advantages of a computer files
• Information takes less time than manual system
• Enhances integrity and reduces item duplication
• Offers faster data access and retrieval
• It’s much easier to update and modify easier

Elements of a Computer File

✓ Character- any single entry
✓ Field- a single character or a collection of character that represent a single piece of data
✓ Records- A collection of related fields that represent a single entity
✓ File - A collection of related records

Ways of viewing a file

1. Logical: the file is viewed in terms of its content and the processing to be carried upon.
2. Physical: the file is viewed in terms of its appearance and how processing is made possible.

Types of Computer Files

1. Master: Main permanent or semi-permanent file containing record of particular item.
2. Transaction: Input / output file holding incoming and outgoing data and also updates
master file.
3. Reference: Permanent or semi-permanent used for look up purposes and it contains
static records.
4. Sort: File created from existing transaction/ master file that is arranged in a particular
order.
5. Back up: Duplicate existing files to supplement the operational files in case of any
loss reason.
6. Report: They contain extracted records from master file.

File Processing Methods

✓ Updating: Changing data in master file to reflect the current status.
✓ Reference: Happens when it is made to particular records to ascertain what is
contained therein but doesn’t alter the content.
✓ Sorting: Entails arranging of file contents into a predetermined sequence of the key
field which occupy the same position.
✓ Merging: Process of combining the contents of master file from a file.
✓ Matching: Input files records are matched or compared to ensure that records exist in
both files.
✓ Summarizing: Records of interest from the file are accumulated to form a record in
an output file.
✓ Searching: Entails looking for the record of interest from the file.
File Updating
✓ Hit rate: Used to describe the rate of processing of a master file in terms of its active
records
✓ Volatility: Frequency with which records are added to the file or deleted from. If the
frequency is high then the file is said to be “volatile” otherwise “static”.
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✓ Size: Refers to the amount of data stored in the file. Its expressed in terms of the total
number of records in the file.

File Organization Methods

Sequential file organization
Records are stored and accessed in a particular order sorted using a key field. The key field is
used to search for particular record. Searching commences from the beginning of file and
proceed to the tail of the file till the record is reached e.g. in magnetic tapes.
Advantages
• Simple to understand the approach
• Easy to organize, maintain and understand
• In expensive input output media and devises are used

Disadvantages
• Entire file must be accessed even when the activity rate is very low.
• Random enquiries are impossible to handle.
• Data redundancy is typically high.

Random or direct file organization

Records are stored randomly but accessed directly. A record key is issued to determine where
the record is stored on storage media e.g. in magnetic and optical disks.
Advantages
• Records are quickly accessed
• File update is easily achieved
Disadvantages
• Data may be accidentally erased or overwritten unless precaution taken
• Expensive hardware and software resources are required
• Relative complexity of programming
• System design around is complex and costly

Serial file organization

Records are laid out contiguously one after the other in no particular sequence. The records
are stored one after another in the same order they come into the file and there exists no
relationship between contiguous records e.g. magnetic tapes.

Indexed sequential file organization

It is similar to sequential method only that an index is used to enable the computer to locate
individual records on the storage media e.g. magnetic disks.
Advantages
• Resources can be accessed sequentially or randomly
• Records are not duplicated
• Accessing of records can be fast if done randomly
Disadvantages
• Storage media is rather expensive
• Accessing records sequentially is time consuming
• Processing records sequentially introduce redundancy

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Data Processing Modes
1. Online: Data is processed immediately received. The computer is connected to data
input unit via communication link and stores the results.
Application
• Banking
• Stock exchange
• Stock control
• Water/electricity billing
Advantages
• Files are maintained up to date.
• Information is readily available for current decisions.
• Files enquiries are possible through terminals (workstations).
Disadvantages
• Systems are complex to develop.
• Costly in terms of hardware, software, storage media e.t.c.
2. Real-time: Process incoming data as soon it occurs, updating transaction file and
giving immediate results.
Application
• Air reservation
• Hotel reservation
• Chemical plant processing
Advantages
• Information is readily available for instant decision making.
• Provides immediate control.
• Fast and reliable information.
Disadvantages
• Requires complex and expensive operating system.
• Aren’t easy to develop.
• Require Front End Processors (FEPs) to relieve the central processor.
3. Distributed: Divides processing task to two or more computers on separate sites
connected by data transmission media.
Application- Banks where customers can be served from different branches but
information is updated at head branch.
Advantages
• Less risk to system breakdown.
• Incase of data loss, only a small portion of data is lost.
• Reduces the load on the host computer hence faster processing.
Disadvantages
• Requires more expensive CPUs.
• Operating system is complex and more difficult to operate.
4. Timesharing: Terminals are connected to the central computer are given access to the
CPU apparently the same time.
Application
• Bureau
• Companies
• Learning institutions
Advantages

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• Better services to users, for information/ output are fast.
• File enquiries possible since files are held online.
• User interaction possible through terminals.
Disadvantages
• User has no control over the central computer.
• Not reliable with regard to data security.
Response time is slow where there are many tasks.
5. Batch: Data is accumulated as a group (batch) over a specified period of time then
processed
Application
• Payroll processing Advantages
• Simple to develop
• Timing reports is not a necessity
• Unit cost of processing is low
Disadvantages
• Time lag between origination of transaction and the information available Late
information is not suitable in situations when instant decisions are required.
• Difficult to provide the desire priority schedule
6. Multiprocessing: Different processors are connected to the main processor like in
banks to update transactions made.
7. Multitasking/ multiprogrammining: Capable of handling more than one task but
processes one at a time.
Advantages
• Increase productivity of computer reducing CPU idle time
• Reduces incidence of peripheral bound operations
Disadvantages
• Requires more expensive CPUs
• More sophisticated software is required to maintain data integrity.
8. Interactive: Continuous communication between the user and the computer.

Advantages of Electronic Processing

1. Quick processing especially where all required data is available
2. Availability of data and information digitally
3. Distance between entities that are processing data is made non-significant
4. Support for information sharing and collaboration

Disadvantages of Electronic information Processing

1. Security of data can be compromised during storage or while in transept on networks if
appropriate measures are not taken
2. Lack of legal framework in many countries that should support electronic processing
activities
3. Lack of ICT skills among many knowledge workers to support electronic data
processing

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INTRODUCTION TO NETWORKING
AND DATA COMMUNICATION

Computer Network: Collection of computers linked together using transmission media for the
purpose of communication and resource sharing.

Terms used in Networking

1. Data signal- Voltage level in the circuit which represent flow of data.
2. Multiplexing- Process of sending multiple signals over same media.
3. Demultiplexing- Process of separating multiple signals at receiving point.
4. Bandwidth- Maximum amount of data a transmission medium can carry at one time.
5. Baseband signal- Analog signal send over transmission medium using a particular
frequency.
6. Baseband width- Digital signal generated and applied to transmission medium directly
without modulation.
7. Attenuation- Decrease in magnitude and energy as signal progressively moves along a
transmission medium.
8. Repeater station- Receive signals, clean, amplify them for transmission.

Modes of Communication
1. Simplex- Communication in only one direction e.g. television and radio
broadcasting
2. Half duplex- Communication in both directions, one at a time e.g. Walkie
Talkie
3. Full duplex- Communication in both directions simultaneously.

Types of Computer Network

1. Local Area Network (LAN)- Network that spans a relatively small geographical area
e.g. a room, building, a school etc.
2. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) - Covers a metropolitan area like a town or a city
of typically a radius of between 5 to 50Km or MAN is made up of many LAN’s in a
metropolitan area.
3. Wide Area Network (WAN) – Covers a large geographical area like continent or the
world.

Server: This is computer dedicated to serving requests for resources from other computers
(workstations) on network.

Advantages of LAN
1. Enables many users share expensive resources like printers and data.
2. Enables communication- sending messages and open chat sessions.
3. Capable of transmitting data very fast.

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Purpose of Networking
1. Resource sharing- File sharing, mail exchange, sending faxes, schedule meetings and
print documents leading to less wastage of time and enhances greater productivity.

2. Remote communication-faster data transmission from different geographical site.

Problems that faced workers.

✓ Roaming of officers who by virtue of their work cover long distance away from
their work place.
✓ Time wastages in accessing organization information.
Remote communication is the process of transmission of data signals between
communications devices located at different geographical locations. Components
of remote communication are:
▪ Remote Client- Computer that tries to access resources from another
computer on network.
▪ Remote host- Computer being accessed on network

3. Distributed processing facilities- Def. Process of running databases or programs on

different computers which are on the same network. The advantages:
(i) Failure of central computer doesn’t affect the operations of the other terminals.
(ii) Processing load shared is equally distributed hence no wastage.

4. Cost effectiveness- Although the initial installation cost is high it cuts down most
expenses and adds value to service delivery. Advantages
(i) Daily communication- paperless communication environment.
(ii) Reduces transport cost for executive meetings.
(iii) Resource sharing e.g. printers, fax machine, optical drives, files and applications.

5. Reliability (i) Transfer of data with minimum errors from destination

(ii) Easy recovery incase of computer breakdown.

Limitations of Networking/disadvantages
1. Security issues- Data is prone to more illegal access threat in the
network
2. High initial cost for software and hardware.
3. Moral and cultural effect- chartrooms and pornography.
4. Spread of terrorism and drug trafficking.
5. Overreliance on network thus network failure may halt the system or bring down the
organization.

Elements of Networking
A. Data Communication Media
This is the pathway where the actual data transfer take place
1. Bounded (cabled) Media
Two line open cable
Insulator between the two wire help reduce interline interference. They capture environmental
frequencies e.g. radio waves hence causing noise in the transmission medium/pathway.
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Insulator Wire

Twisted pair cable-

Wires are in a double helix manner. They transmit both voice and signal data. Types
(i) Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) cables- Don’t have a shied that prevents
electromagnetic interference (EMI) or “electronoise” from the environment.
(ii) Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) cables

Advantages
• Used in the telephone systems
• Cheap installation equipments
• Cheap due to mass production of telephone

Disadvantages
• Suffer a high attenuation rate.
• Sensitive to EMI and eavesdropping
• Low data transmission but more than
• two line

Coaxial cables
Has a central copper core surrounded by a dielectric material (insulator) that is then
surrounded by a hollow mesh conductor covered by a shield. The braid (mesh conductor) is
made of copper/ aluminum and serves as the ground for the carrier wire. The braid protects
radio and electromagnetic interference. The thinner the conductor determines the attenuation
rate. Thinner have a high attenuation rate. Used in network blockade- A link that connects
two separate LAN’s
(ii) Thin coaxial cables (Thinnet)- has no dielectric insulator
(iii) Thick coaxial cables (Thicket)- has two dielectric insulators.

Copper core

Core insulator

Aluminum foil

Braided shielding

Outer layering

(b) Thicknet
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Advantages
• Stable even under high loads
• Large bandwidth than twisted pair
• Carry voice, data and video signals simultaneously
• Resistant to radio and EMI than twisted pair cables.

Disadvantages
• Thicket is hard to work with
• Are relatively expensive to buy and install compared to twisted pare

Fiber optic cable

Electronic signals from source are converted to light signals the propagated along the fiber
cable by a Light Emitting Diode (LED) at the transmitter then at the receiving end a
photosensitive device used to convert light signals back to electric signals. Components:
(i) Core- Central part and is made of a hollow transparent plastic glass.
(ii) Cladding- Single protection layer surrounding the core.
(iv) Buffer- Surrounds the cladding, strengthening the cable.
(v) Jacket- Outer casing

Types of optical fiber cables:

(i) Multimode: Has a very narrow center core hence have low attenuation rate as
light takes only one path in its suitable for long distance
(ii) Single mode: Has a thicker core hence allow several light rays
Cladding

Jacket

Light rays
Core
Cladding
Advantages
• Immune to EMI and eavesdropping.
• Fast and support high bandwidth.
• Large distance can be covered- low attenuation
• Used in hazardous places- Don’t generate electric signals.
• Smaller and lighter than copper- Ideal for space limited situation
Disadvantages
• Difficult installation since it must be carefully be handled
• Expensive connectivity devices and media are required
• Relatively complex to configure
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• Difficult and expensive to repair

A. Unbounded (Wireless) Media

Microwave Transmission
Line of sight

Have a high frequency of 3 GHz to 4 GHz. It suitable for point to point transmission (line of
sight): Signal is directed through a focused beam from transmitter to receiver.

Advantages
• It is less prone to transmission errors.
• It is capable of operating on both digital and analog data Operates at a high speed.

Disadvantages
• Signals affected by atmospheric conductors e.g. lightening
• Additional numbers of repeaters are added after every few kilometers.
Satellite Transmission

1. The transmitter earth station- sets up an uplink in order to transmit data.

2. A satellite (geostationary) - receives, amplifies and transmits the signal to receiving earth
station via a downlink frequency.
3. Receiving earth station- receives signals on the other side of the globe from the satellite

Satellite footprint: Area on earth where line of site can easily be located. Transmission of signals
to many recipients’ earth stations forms a point to multipoint transmission.

Very Small Aperture Terminal (VSAT): This technology refers to very small satellite dish
used in radio, data and TV communications. It enables direct access to satellite communication
instead of having to go through satellite owned or licensed satellite gateway.
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Advantages
• Has a high band width.
• Earth station can be installed on a customer property than layering extensive cables.
• Cheap since cost is not dependent on the distance.

Disadvantages
• Expensive to install ground stations.
• Heavy rains or bad weather increases loss of signals. Any station can receive the signals.

Radio Communication
(i) High Frequency (HF) - Propagated by directing it to ionosphere on earth. Then
the ionosphere will reflect back to earth surface and the receiver will pick it up.
(ii) Very High Frequency (VHF) - Transmitted over the earths surface.
Stationeries are place strategically to maintain the line of sight from one
another.
(iii) Ultra-High Frequency (UHF)- It is the same as VHF but require smaller aerial
because they can be made to follow even narrow and direct path to the receiver
than VHF
(iv) Bluetooth- Enables people to use hand-held communication devices e.g. phones
PDA’s to access the internet. Network Bluetooth enabled devices is called a
wireless personal are network (WPAN) or piconet.

Infrared Transmission
Infrared transceivers must be within the line of sight in the same room because unlike radio
signals they cannot penetrate objects.

Advantages of Wireless Media

• Flexible in operations compared to wired.
• Span a large geographical area.
• Can take place in satellite even in remote areas.

Disadvantages of wireless Media

•
• Relatively difficult to establish or configure.
• High initial cost.
Communication Devices for Bounded (Wired) Media
1. Network Interface Card (NIC): Creates a physical link between computer
and transmission media.
2. Modems and Codec: Modem (Modular demodulator) is a device that converts
digital to analog signals when sending data over a transmission media then
converts the analog signals to digital at the receiving point. Codec converts
analog signals to digital form for transmission via a digital medium.
3. Hubs (Concentrators): Connects computers on the network and relay signals
from one computer to another on the same network using protocols.

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4. Bridge: Determines selectively the appropriate network segment for which a
message is meant for delivery through address filtering thus dividing a busy
network into segments reducing network traffics.
5. Repeaters: Receive signals from one segment of the network, cleans it to
remove any distortion then send it to another segment.
6. Routers: Interconnects different networks and directs transfer of data packets
from source to destination depending on the network address.
7. Router: Communication device that combines the functionality of a bridge and
the router.
8. Gateway: Any device that can be configured to provide access to a Wide Area
Network (WAN) or the internet.
9. Switches: Unlike the hub, a switch forwards a packet directly to the address
node without broadcasting
NB Node- Data terminal equipment e.g. workstation.

Wireless (Unbounded) Communication Devices

1. Access points (AP): Entry point into a bounded network for people who
have wireless network devices like PDAs, laptops and computers with
wireless links.
2. Wireless antennae: Detects signals in the surroundings.
3. Personal computer memory card international association (PCMCIA):
Add-on card inserted in devices e.g. PDA or laptops in order to enable
wireless communication between devices and wired network server. Mostly
used in LAN connection.

Network Software
Classifications of Network Software
a) Network operating system
b) Network protocols

Network operating system

Network operating system is specially designed to optimize the network computer ability to
respond to services request. Its functions are:
(i.) Provide access to network resources e.g. printers and folders.
(ii.) Enables nodes on network to communicate with each other more
efficiently.
(iii.) Support interprocess communication i.e. enables various process on
the network communicate.
(iv.) Respond to request from application program running one network.
(v.) Support network services e.g. network cards, drivers and protocols.
(vi.) Implementing network security features.

Functions of network Administrators

(i.) Secure the network against unauthorized access
(ii.) Track network usage and keeps a log of all people who have used the network.
(iii.) Ensures inter-operatability between various systems on the network.
(iv.) Performance monitoring to ensure maximum throughput on the network.
Examples of networking operating systems are:
• Windows NT,/2000 /2003
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• UNIX
• Linux
• Novell Netware.

Network Protocols
They are a set of rules and procedures that govern communication between two different two
devices or people.
Concept behind network protocols
In order to transmit data over the network it has to be broken into discrete systematic steps. Each
step has its own rule and procedures i.e. protocols that must be coordinated so that there are no
conflicts or incomplete operations. Achieved through protocol layering .Network protocols are
designed after the Open System Interprocess (OSI) model. The open system interconnection
model is not a protocol as such but is meant to help designers to come up with high quality
layered protocols.

Layer Function
7. Application layer User application run here and generate request for data
transmission or open received files.
6. Presentation layer Adds formatting, display and encryption on information
to data being presented.
5. Session layer Sets up data transmission session between two
communication devices.
4. Transport layer Manages data transfer over the network to ensure
reliability.
3. Network layer Address information is added to the data packet and
routed to destination.
2. Data link layer Adds error checking information and prepares data for
going into the physical connections.
1. Physical layer Data packets are finally transmitted via the network and
through transmission media in form of bits.

Network Topologies
This refers to the way in which computers and other devices have been arranged or how data is
passed from one computer to another in the network.
Classifications of Network Topologies
1. Logical topology
2. Physical topology

Logical / Signal Topology

Mainly concerned with the way data passes from one device to the next on the computer network..
Examples of signal topology are Ethernet and Token ring topologies.
a) Ethernet topology: All the workstations or computers adhere to the network media
and can only send data when none of the others are sending data.

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b) Token ring: There is a special package for data called a token that goes around the
network and only the computer whose address is on the data held in the token will
take up the token to read the data then release the token.

Physical Topology Bus Topology.

All the devices on the network are connected to a central cable called the bus or the
backbone. Each end of the cable is connected to a terminator to avoid signal from bouncing
back and forth on the cable causing signal distortion. The network address of computers on
the network is called the medium access control (MAC) address.

Advantages of bus topology are:

• It is to install.
• It is less costly because doesn’t require a complete cable length per computer.
The disadvantages of bus topologies are:
• Failure of central cable brings the whole network down.
• Only one node can transmit message at a time. Difficult to troubleshoot

Star Topology
All the devices are connected to the central hub (concentrator).

Computer

Central Computer
Computer computer

Computer Computer

Advantages of Star topology

• Easy to configure.
• If one node fails it doesn’t affect the other nodes.
• It is easy to expand this topology.
• Allows the centralization of key network resources.
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Disadvantages
• It requires more cables to install hence it is more expensive.
• Failure of the central hub puts the entire network at a standstill.
• Installing this type of network is time consuming.

Ring Topology
All the components in this topology are connected to a single transmission cable forming a ring styled
connection of computers

Computer

Computer Computer

Computer
Computer

Advantages of Ring topology

• Data transmission is fast.

• They use a short length cable.
• Ring topology is simple to install.

Disadvantages of the ring topology

• Modification may be difficult because adding or removing a device can disrupt the entire
network
• Troubleshooting can be difficult.
• If one site fails it affects the entire network.

Mesh Topology
Device in this topology are connected with repeating (redundant) cables between the
workstations. Each node is connected to one another.

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Advantages of Mesh Topology
• It is easier to troubleshoot.

Disadvantages
• Expensive: Costly to provide the redundant cables.

• Difficult to install and maintain.

Tree/Hierarchical Topology
All the nodes are connected in form of a tree with nodes as leaves and links as branches. The
branches are connected to one another by the means of devices called hubs.
Advantages of Hierarchical topology
• If the node below the main node fails, the network does not fail.
Disadvantages
• If the top node fails the entire network fails because it controls the other
nodes. Expensive to install since it is complex.

Printer

Hub

Bus/backbone

Network Security
Classification of Network Security
(i.) Share level security
(ii.) User level security

Share level Security

Mostly the share level security is use in the peer to peer networks. Used to decide on which
resource to share. It is provided by most desktop operating systems like Windows 9X.

User level Security

Applied in server based networks. A network administrator assigns accounts to users hence
each user must provide a unique name and password in order to access the network resources.
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It is found in Microsoft Windows NT, 4.0/2000/2003, UNIX, Novell Netware, Linux Fedora
etc.

Other networks
Intranets and Extranets.
1. Intranet
What is an Intranet?
An Intranet is an internal corporate network used in organizations to enable the sharing of documents
among coworkers. It supports users inside one organization (usually on a LAN).

Intranet - A private network within an organization. It can connect all types of computers within an
organization.

Intranet has a private Web Server, which can be made available to the entire organization, individual
department or to specific departmental workgroups.
An Intranet uses the infrastructure and standards of the Internet and can be connected to the Internet.
Note. Intranet applications are usually combined with the normal Web application of other organizations,
but are hidden from those outside the organization.
BENEFITS of intranets
• Workforce productivity: Intranets can help users to locate and view information faster and use applications
relevant to their roles and responsibilities. With the help of a web browser interface, users can access data held
in any database the organization wants to make available, anytime and — subject to security provisions — from
anywhere within the company workstations, increasing the employees ability to perform their jobs faster, more
accurately, and with confidence that they have the right information. It also helps to improve the services
provided to the users.
• Time: Intranets allow organizations to distribute information to employees on an as-needed basis; Employees
may link to relevant information at their convenience, rather than being distracted indiscriminately by email.
• Communication: Intranets can serve as powerful tools for communication within an organization, vertically
strategic initiatives that have a global reach throughout the organization. The type of information that can easily
be conveyed is the purpose of the initiative and what the initiative is aiming to achieve, who is driving the
initiative, results achieved to date, and who to speak to for more information. By providing this information on
the intranet, staff have the opportunity to keep up-to-date with the strategic focus of the organization. Some
examples of communication would be chat, email, and/or blogs. A great real-world example of where an
intranet helped a company communicate is when Nestle had a number of food processing plants in Scandinavia.
Their central support system had to deal with a number of queries every day.[7] When Nestle decided to invest
in an intranet, they quickly realized the savings. McGovern says the savings from the reduction in query calls
was substantially greater than the investment in the intranet.
• Web publishing allows cumbersome corporate knowledge to be maintained and easily accessed throughout the
company using hypermedia and Web technologies.[8] Examples include: employee manuals, benefits
documents, company policies, business standards, news feeds, and even training, can be accessed using
common Internet standards (Acrobat files, Flash files, CGI applications). Because each business unit can update
the online copy of a document, the most recent version is usually available to employees using the intranet.
• Business operations and management: Intranets are also being used as a platform for developing and
deploying applications to support business operations and decisions across the internetworked enterprise.[8]
• Cost-effective: Users can view information and data via web-browser rather than maintaining physical
documents such as procedure manuals, internal phone list and requisition forms. This can potentially save the
business money on printing, duplicating documents, and the environment as well as document maintenance
overhead.
• Enhance collaboration: Information is easily accessible by all authorised users, which enables teamwork.[8]
• Cross-platform capability: Standards-compliant web browsers are available for Windows, Mac, and UNIX.
• Built for one audience: Many companies dictate computer specifications which, in turn, may allow Intranet
developers to write applications that only have to work on one browser (no cross-browser compatibility issues).
Being able to specifically address your "viewer" is a great advantage. Since Intranets are user-specific
(requiring database/network authentication prior to access), you know exactly who you are interfacing with and

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can personalize your Intranet based on role (job title, department) or individual ("Congratulations Jane, on your
3rd year with our company!").
• Promote common corporate culture: Every user has the ability to view the same information within the
Intranet.
• Immediate updates: When dealing with the public in any capacity, laws, specifications, and parameters can
change. Intranets make it possible to provide your audience with "live" changes so they are kept up-to-date,
which can limit a company's liability.[8]
• Supports a distributed computing architecture: The intranet can also be linked to a company’s management
information system, for example a time keeping system.

2. Extranet:
An Extranet works in much the same manner as an Intranet, but provides information to selected users
outside the organization.
E.g., a certain university can have an Internet library containing millions of articles, but only make it
available to staff and students at colleges and universities within the country. To access the library, you
must provide a password when you connect to the Internet site.
Home Page.
Home page is the Web page loaded when Internet Explorer is first started, i.e., when you access the Web.

E.g., the Internet address of the Windows home page is http://www.Microsoft.com /Windows
Home page can also the first page of a company or an individual’s Website on the Web.

Those who offer information through the Web must first establish a Home page – a www text and
graphical screen that welcomes the user and explains the organization that has established the page.
Home page – is the introductory page of a Web site. The home page contains links to other pages in the
site.

Notes.
You can set any Web page as your Home page.
Do not confuse your home page with the home page of the Websites you visit. Your home page is set
through Internet Explorer. The home page of a Website is the introductory page for the site.

If you click a hyperlink such as Home on a Web page, you will jump to the home page of the Website,
not yours. To access your home page, click the Home button on the Explorer toolbar.

ADVANTAGES of EXTRANET
➢ Exchange large volumes of data using Electronic Data Interchange (EDI)
➢ Share product catalogs exclusively with trade partners
➢ Collaborate with other companies on joint development efforts
➢ Jointly develop and use training programs with other companies
➢ Provide or access services provided by one company to a group of other companies, such as an online banking
application managed by one company on behalf of affiliated banks

DISADVANTAGES
➢ Extranets can be expensive to implement and maintain within an organization (e.g., hardware, software,
employee training costs), if hosted internally rather than by an application service provider.
➢ Security of extranets can be a concern when hosting valuable or proprietary information.

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Emerging trends and issues in ICT
Issues Resulting from the use of ICT
a. Effects on employment
1. Job creation: the following positions are created; computers operators, programmers, network
administration, information technology and information science managers, database administrators,
software developers, system analyst etc.
2. Job replacement: Loosing job, Clerical and repetitive tasks that require a large number of employees
have been made redundant. Computer illiterate are replaced.
3. Displacement: displacement of employees from place to another or department when computer skills
are required.
b. Automated Production
This is where the process of producing goods and services is computerized.
Advantages
Increases efficiency due to balancing of workload and production capacity.
Improved customer service: Adequate and high quality goods are produced in time.
Efficient utilization of resources
Disadvantages
High initial cost of setting up automated systems
Automated production may lead to unemployment
c. Issues of Workers Health
1. Repetitive Strain Injuries (RSI): Injuries resulting from wrist, hand, arm, mode strain, tendonitis and
neck strains due to forced repetitive movement. The cure for RSI is by resting, sitting in a relaxed
position and changing typing techniques.
2. Eyestrains and headaches: Computer Vision Syndrome (CVS) is characterized by eyestrains,
headaches, double vision and other problems caused by improper use of monitors. The solution for this is
good resolution, antiglare filters, adjusting brightness.
3. Stress.
4. Isolation.
5. Electromagnetic emissions: Computer users are advised to use low emission device to avoid expressing
themselves to excess emission.
6. Radiation from the VDU causes birth defects, blindness, cancer, miscarriage and sterility.
7. Computer chip toxin: workers are exposed to toxic chemicals in chip manufacturing industries that
may pose health problems similar to those from the VDU.
d. Environment pollution: Huge garbage dumps of dead computer parts, printers, ink, toner, cartridges,
monitors and other computer accessories are disposed in landfills causing environmental pollution.
Nickel-cadmium laptop batteries that contain toxic cadmium which when buried in a landfill can leak into
underground water tables and attachment areas.
e. Cultural Effects
1. Flaming: writing online messages that use derogatory, obscene or dirty language.
2. Pornographic material
3. Computer crimes: hacking, eavesdropping, piracy etc.
4. ICT have erased people’s integrity by using computers as a tool to accomplice their vices e.g. forge
certificates, passports and other document.

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Breakthrough in ICT
It has changed lifestyles in health care, education, communication, research, commerce, art and design,
entertainment, transport etc.
Evolution of Computer Systems
1. Rapid evolution in computer hardware and software.
Computers will become more intelligent
Software will be more versatile and easier to use
Cheaper and more powerful computers which will have faster processor
Industries will become more automated
More application software will be available because of high speed, large available memory for programs
Education will have to gear itself to training students to computer assisted services rather than teaching
them physically
Smaller size in computers
Operating systems that will handle real time data analysis and objects oriented will be developed
Will have improved user interface that offers user easier and more intrusive access to information.
2. Artificial Intelligence (AI):
This is a branch of computer science that is concerned with the development of machines that emulate
human like qualities as learning, communication, seeing and hearing.
Applications Artificial Intelligence
1. Expert System: Software designed to make a computer operate at a level of a human expert on a
specific narrow area of specialization. Examples are;
Mycin- blood and meningitis
Prospectors- Predicting mineral deposit in certain geographical site
Delta- Repair diesel electric locomotive
Components of artificial intelligence are;
i. Knowledge base: Expert system’s database of knowledge about a particular subject.
It contains relevant facts, beliefs, assumption and procedures for solving particular problems.
ii. Inference engine: Software that controls the search for knowledge in the knowledge base , procedures
and conclusions.
iii. User interface: Display screen that enables the user to interact with the system.
2. Natural language programming:
3. Artificial neural network: use of electronic devices and software to enable the neurological structure
of human basic.
Essential attributes;
The neurodes can be trained to distinguish between what constitutes a signal and what doesn’t.
They are capable of recognizing patterns in large amount of data that are too complex for human beings.
4. Robotics: Computer controlled device that emulates human beings in carrying out tasks that would
otherwise be dangerous and different.
Merits
A robot can work on repetitive task without getting bored or tied.
Can work on dangerous areas unlike human beings
Increased production because they are capable of working at a high speed
Leads to less operating expenses since less personnel is required
Demerits
Lead to job replacement
Expensive to install
3. Expanded superhighway
Involves integration of cabled and wired technologies for the purpose of data and information
transmission

The End
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